Power system operations and Controls (BEE714A)

MODULE 4
Control of Voltage and
Reactive Power

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Power system operations and Controls (BEE714A)

Module 4
Control of Voltage and Reactive Power
Introduction
To understand the concept of reactive power, let us consider a simple AC voltage source
connected to a load as shown in the figure 4.1

Figure 4.1 Source and Load

Let 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡, the current 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin⁡
(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙). The instantaneous power is given by
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin⁡
(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= cos 𝜙 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
2
𝑉 𝐼
= 𝑚2 𝑚2 cos 𝜙 − cos 𝜙 cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡
= 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜙 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝑉𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡
= instantaneous real power + instantaneous reactive power

The instantaneous real power has an average value 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜙 and is denoted by P.
The instantaneous reactive power has a maximum value 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜙.
The real power denotes supply of average power P from source to load. On the other hand, an
energy interchange takes place between source and load with average value zero, but
maximum value of 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜙. This is called reactive power Q, and is given unit VARs (volt–
ampere reactance).
This interchange of energy takes place at twice the supply frequency.
𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗
The convention followed for reactive power is that reactive power absorbed by an inductor
is positive and that by a capacitor is negative. Hence, we can consider the capacitor to
generate reactive power. In a system, the net reactive power is the sum of reactive powers
absorbed by various components with the correct signs.

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Power system operations and Controls (BEE714A)

4.1 Production and Absorption of Reactive Power :

Various elements in a network absorb or generate reactive power. Let us consider these.

4.1.1 Synchronous generators:

They can absorb or generate reactive power depending on the excitation. When the
generator is over excited, its generated emf is greater than the terminal voltage, and the
generator current injected at the terminal bus lags the terminal voltage.
An over-excited generator generates reactive power. Similarly, an under-excited
generator absorbs reactive power.

Figure 4.2 Generator Model

Figure 4.3 Excitation of generators: (a) Over excitation (b) under excitation
The generator conditions and phasor diagram shown in the figure 4.2 and 4.3 respectively.
The capability of a synchronous generator to continuously supply or absorb reactive power is
limited by the field current, armature current and end-region heating limits.

4.1.2. Overhead lines: The surge impedance or characteristic impedance of an overhead line
𝐿
is given by 𝑍𝑐 = Where L is the inductance of the line and C is the shunt capacitance.
𝐶
The Natural load or Surge Impedance Load (SIL) is given by
𝑉2
SIL= 𝑍𝑜 watts
𝑐
Where 𝑉𝑜 is the rated voltage of the line. At loads below SIL, transmission line generates
reactive and at loads above SIL, overhead lines absorb reactive power.

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Power system operations and Controls (BEE714A)

4.1.3. Underground cables: They have high capacitance, owing to which they have high
natural loads or SIL. Hence, they are always loaded below their SIL and generate reactive
power.
4.1.4. Transformers: They always absorb reactive power, irrespective of their loads.

4.1.5. Loads: They normally absorb reactive power. Heavy lagging loads cause severe
voltage drops.

4.1.6 Compensating devices: These are added to either generator absorb reactive power.
They are controlled to balance the reactive power as desired.

4.2 Methods of Voltage Control :

The control of voltage at all levels is by control of reactive power flow. While the
generating units are equipped with AVRs, other control methods are used throughout the
system. The devices used for this purpose are:
[Link] reactance compensators − series capacitors are used for this.
2. Shunt reactors and capacitors, which act as sinks and sources of reactive power
respectively.
3. Synchronous condensers which can act as sources or sinks of reactive power.
4. Regulating transformers like tap-changing transformers and boosters. 5. Power
electronics-based flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) controllers and custom power
devices. The first four options are conventional voltage control methods, whereas FACTS is
a more recent technology. Each of them will be dealt with in the following sections.

4.3 Dependence of Voltage on Reactive Power: Consider a source supplying a load as

shown in Fig4.4

Figure 4.4 Source supplying load: (a) One line diagram (b) Phasor diagram for lagging
current, and Phasor diagram for leading current.
From the phasor diagram 𝐸 2 = 𝑜𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 2 + 𝑑𝑐 2
oa=V ; ab=𝐼𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 ; bc= 𝐼𝑋 sin 𝜙
dc=dc-ce = 𝐼𝑋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝐼𝑅 sin 𝜙
𝐸 2 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + 𝐼𝑋 sin 𝜙 2 + 𝐼𝑋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝐼𝑅 sin 𝜙 2
---------1

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Now P = 𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙and Q= 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜙

𝑃
∴ 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑉 ---------2
𝑄
𝐼 sin 𝜙 = 𝑉 ----------3
2 2
𝑅𝑃 𝑋𝑄 𝑋𝑃 𝑅𝑄
𝐸2 = 𝑉 + + + −
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
2 2
𝐸 2 = 𝑉 + ∆𝑉𝑝 + ∆𝑉𝑞 -----------4
𝑅𝑃+𝑋𝑄
∴ ∆𝑉𝑝 = in phase with V
𝑉
𝑋𝑃−𝑅𝑄
∆𝑉𝑞 = 𝑉 in quadrature with V
If ∆𝑉𝑞 ≪ (𝑉 + ∆𝑉𝑝 ) or 𝑃𝑋 ≪ 𝑉 2 + 𝑄𝑋, then equation 4 becomes
2
𝑅𝑃 + 𝑋𝑄 2
𝐸 = 𝑉+
𝑉
𝑅𝑃+𝑋𝑄
𝐸 − 𝑉 = 𝑉 = ∆𝑉𝑝 -----------5
From the above equation arithmetic difference between the voltages E and V is
approximately
𝑅𝑃 + 𝑋𝑄
𝑉
Neglecting Resistance,
𝑋𝑄
𝐸−𝑉 = 𝑉 -----------6
From equation 6, it is obvious that the receiving end voltage depends on the reactive power
drawn by the load, at the receiving end bus.
From the phasor diagram it is clear that ∆𝑉𝑝 changes magnitude of ∆𝑉𝑞 affects the angle 𝛿,
∆𝑉𝑞
𝛿 = sin−1 𝐸 and depends only on P.
Under the short-circuit condition
∗ ∗ 𝑉2
𝑆𝑠𝑐 = 𝐸𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝑍∗ -----------7
𝑠𝑐
Neglecting resistance
𝑉2
𝑆𝑠𝑐 = -----------8
𝑋
𝐸 𝑄
𝑉= 𝑄𝑋 𝑄 ≅𝐸 1−𝑆 (𝑖𝑓 𝑄 ≪ 𝑆𝑠𝑐 ) -----------9
1+ 2 + 𝑠𝑐
𝑉 𝑆 𝑠𝑐
Equation (9) represents the approximate relationship between the voltage at the receiving
end and the reactive power in terms of the short-circuit strength. Figure 4.5 shows the
relationship graphically. From Fig. 4.5 , we can observe that if at the receiving end we have
negative Vars (if load is capacitive) the receiving end voltage can be greater than sending end
voltage.

Figure 4.5 Voltage profile vs. reactive power

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4.4 Interconnected system:

Consider the system of two generators shown in the figure 4.6

Figure 4.6 Two generators interconnected

Consider the system of two generator shown in Fig 4.6(a), along with the phasor diagrams
Voltage between two nodes is given by
𝑅𝑃+𝑋𝑄
∆𝑉 = ------------1
𝑉
If X >> R, then Q is determined by ΔV. In Fig. 4.6(a), let us assume that the phase angle of
G1 is ahead of G2 and V1> V2. This means that there is flow of active and reactive power
from 1 to 2. From Fig. 4.6(b),we can see that Id,the component of current in phase with V, is
determined by 𝛿. The active power P depends on Id, and hence on 𝛿. Likewise, Iq, the
component of current in quadrature to V, depends mainly on V1 − V2. Hence, Q depends on
the voltage difference. If we now vary the generator excitation such that V2> V1, then the
direction of reactive power flow is reversed. Thus, the direction of active power flow can be
controlled by adjusting the prime mover inputs (steam or water) and the direction of reactive
power flow can be controlled by adjusting the excitation of the two generators. If R << X,
these two operations are independent of each other.
From equation (1) reactive power demand at a bus heavy, this has to flow from the
connecting lines. Hence the voltage of the bus falls. On the other hand, if reactive power is
generated, the voltage of the bus will rise.
If Q=0, then there will be no voltage drop between bus 1 and bus 2.
Equation 1, the expression for receiving end reactive power as
𝑉2 ∆𝑉−𝑅𝑃2
𝑄= -----------2
𝑋
If V1 and V2are constant, and hence ΔV constant
𝑅𝑃2
𝑄2 = 𝐾 − -----------3
𝑋
The implication of Eq. (3) is as follows:
1. If we need to hold V2 constant with varying P2, Q2as given by Eq. (3) must be supplied.
2. If that amount of Q2 cannot be supplied, thenV2 cannot be held constant.

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If P2 changes by an amount ΔP2, then from Eq. (3)

𝑅
∆𝑄2 = 𝑋 ∆𝑃2 -----------4
𝑅
From Eq. (4), it is obvious that an increase in P2 causes an increase in Q2, proportional to 𝑋 .
Thus, the voltage can be controlled by injection of reactive power of correct sign.
4.5 Sensitivity of Voltage to Change in P Q
Voltage V at a node is a function of P and Q.
𝑉 = 𝑓(𝑃, 𝑄)
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑃 + 𝑑𝑄
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑉
= 1 and 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑄 = 1
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑃
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑄
∴ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜕𝑃 + ------------1
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑉
w.k.t ∆𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝑉
𝑅𝑃 + 𝑋𝑄
𝐸−𝑉 =
𝑉
𝐸 − 𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑅𝑃 − 𝑋𝑄 = 0 ------------2
E = Sending end voltage
V= Receiving end voltage
𝜕𝑃 𝐸−2𝑉
= ------------3
𝜕𝑉 𝑅
𝜕𝑄 𝐸−2𝑉
= -----------4
𝜕𝑉 𝑋
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑄
∴ 𝑑𝑉 = (𝐸−2𝑉) + -----------5
𝑅 (𝐸−2𝑉) 𝑋
𝑑𝑃 𝑅 +𝑑𝑄(𝑋)
= -----------6
(𝐸−2𝑉)
For constant V and ∆𝑉,
𝑅
𝑑𝑋 = − 𝑑𝑃 -----------7
𝑋
𝜕𝑄
From equation 5, smaller the reactance associated with a node, the larger the value 𝜕𝑉 and
hence from equation 1 smaller the voltage drop lesser. When more lines are incident on a
node, the reactance will be smaller and hence voltage drop lesser.
When the system is on no-load, V=E. Then from equation 5.
𝜕𝑄 𝐸
= 𝑋 -----------8
𝜕𝑉
𝐸
is nothing but receiving end current when short circuited and resistance neglected.
𝑋
𝜕𝑄
Therefore magnitude is equal to short-circuit current, when V=E.
𝜕𝑉

4.5 Cost savings:

Let us consider a simple two-part tariff given by
𝑇 = 𝑥 × 𝑘𝑉𝐴 + 𝑦 × 𝑘𝑊𝑕 Rs
𝑥 = is the charge for kVA
𝑦 = is the charge kWh.

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Let 𝑃1 be the active power drawn at power factor cos 𝜙1 .

𝑃
The kVA is cos 1𝜙 .
1
𝑃
If now the power factor is improved to cos 𝜙2 , the new kVA is cos 1𝜙 .
2
𝑃1 𝑃1
The saving in cost = 𝑥 − cos 𝜙 .
cos 𝜙 1 2
The reactive power required to change the power factor is = 𝑃1 tan 𝜙1 − 𝑃1 tan 𝜙2 kVAr
If the cost of installation is Rs. C/kVAr,
1 1
The total cost of installation is = 𝑥𝑃1 − cos 𝜙 − 𝐶𝑃1 tan 𝜙1 − tan 𝜙2
cos 𝜙 1 2
Maximum saving is obtained by differentiating the above equation w.r.t ‘𝜙2 ’ and equating
first order derivative to zero.
𝑑(𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 )
=0
𝑑𝜙 2
𝑥𝑃1 tan 𝜙2 sec 𝜙2 = 𝐶𝑃1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜙2
𝑥 tan 𝜙2 sec 𝜙2 = 𝐶 sec 𝜙2
𝐶
sin 𝜙2 = 𝑥 -------------1
From the above equation optimum power factor does not depend on the initial power factor.

4.6 Methods of Voltage Control by Reactive Power Injection

The conventional means of reactive power injection are:
1. Shunt capacitors/reactors.
2. Series capacitors.
3. Synchronous condensers.
4.6.1 Shunt Reactors:
Shunt reactors and capacitors are either permanently connected to the transmission and
distribution system or they are switched. Shunt reactors are used to compensate the effect of
line capacitance, especially to limit voltage rise on light loads. Assume a simple system with
an EHV line shown in Fig. 4.6(a) and the phasor diagram in Fig. 4.6 (b)

Figure 4.6 EHV line connected to a source

With the receiving end open, capacitive line-charging current Ich is drawn, which leads VR by
90°. This causes a drop IchXL in the line and the phasor sum of VR and Ich XL gives Vs. We
see that VR> Vs. This voltage rise at the receiving end will also be present when an EHV line
is supplied from a weak source (high source reactance and low short-circuit capacity) and is

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Power system operations and Controls (BEE714A)

called the Ferranti effect. To compensate for this voltage rise, shunt reactors have to be
connected. Shunt reactors in EHV lines are connected as follows:
1. A shunt reactor of sufficient size must be permanently connected to limit fundamental
frequency temporary overvoltage to about 1.5 pu for less than 1 s. These reactors are also
useful in limiting overvoltage due to switching transients.
2. Switched reactors are connected to the EHV bus to maintain normal voltage under no-
load/light load conditions.
The connections are shown in Fig. 4.7 (a). Shorter lines supplied from strong systems do not
need permanent reactors. Only switchable reactors are used. Tapped shunt reactors are also
used as shown in Fig. 4.7 (b).

Figure 4.7 EHV reactors

4.6.2 Shunt Capacitors:
Shunt capacitors supply reactive power at a bus and are used with lagging loads. They boost
local voltages and are used extensively throughout the system in a wide range of ratings and
sizes. Their main advantage is low cost and flexibility. The reactive power output is
proportional to the square of voltage which is a disadvantage. Shunt capacitors are also
extensively used in distribution feeders for power factor improvement and feeder voltage
control. Connecting a capacitor at the load end compensates for the lagging current drawn by
the load, thus improving the receiving end bus power factor. In a typical industrial plant, the
power factor correction is done at different levels − plant, individual drives, group of drives −
as shown in Fig. 4.8.

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Figure 4.8Power Factor corrections

In order to compensate for I2 X losses in transmission lines, capacitor banks of appropriate
sizes are connected to HV bus or tertiary winding of the main transformers. They are
switched capacitors and provide a simple method of controlling transmission system
voltages. The size of the capacitor is decided by performing detailed load flow analysis. The
voltage rating of the shunt capacitor is normally slightly higher than the bus voltage.
4.6.3 Series Capacitors: Series capacitors are connected in series with the line conductors
compensate for the inductive reactance of the line. This reduces the transfer reactance
between the buses to which the line is connected, increases maximum power that can be
transmitted, and reduces the effective reactive power 𝑋𝐼 2 loss. Series compensation is the
method of improving the system voltage by connecting a capacitor in series with the
transmission line. In other words, in series compensation, reactive power is inserted in series
with the transmission line for improving the impedance of the system. It improves the power
transfer capability of the line. It is mostly used in extra and ultra-high voltage line
Although series capacitors are not usually installed for voltage control as such, they do
contribute to improved voltage control and reactive power balance. The reactive power
produced by a series capacitor increases with increasing power transfer; a series capacitor is
self-regulating in this regard.
The uses of series capacitors are:
1) Reduces line voltage drop
2) Limits load-dependent voltage drop
3) Influence power floe in parallel lines
4) Increases steady-state power transfer capability.
5) For a given power transfer, reduces transmission angle.
6) Increases system stability

Figure 4.9 Series capacitor connected in a transmission line

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4.6.4 Synchronous Condensers (Synchronous Phase Modifiers) A synchronous condenser is

a synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a mechanical load (No-load
Condition). When connected at a bus, it can control the bus voltage by absorbing or
generating reactive power. If a load is connected at the bus and draws lagging current, the
synchronous condenser can be made to compensate the lagging current by drawing a leading
current, thus improving the power factor. The power factor of the synchronous condenser can
be varied by varying the excitation. A plot of the power factor versus field current for a
synchronous motor is shown in Fig.4.10 . 𝐼𝑓𝑜 is the field current at which the power factor is
unity.
From Fig.4.10 , for If<𝐼𝑓𝑜 , (under excitation) the synchronous motor draws lagging
currents and for If> If0, (over excitation) it draws leading currents. With a voltage regulator,
the excitation can be automatically adjusted to change the reactive power and thus maintain
the bus voltage constant. Since, it is on no-load, the real power drawn is only to meet the
losses. They do not produce excessive voltage levels and are not susceptible to electrical
resonance. They provide a good alternative to shunt capacitors. Synchronous condensers are
also called synchronous compensators or synchronous capacitors. An added advantage is that
being a rotating machine, its stored energy is useful to ride through transient disturbances like
voltage sags.

Figure 4.10 Power factor curve for a synchronous motor

4.7 Voltage control and Power factor correction
The principle of power factor correction is to compensate for the reactive power drawn by the
load, by locally connecting a compensating device. If we have a load admittance 𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗𝐵𝐿 ,
then the current drawn by the load is given by
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑉(𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗𝐵𝐿 )
The compensator current Ic is made equal to −jVBL so that the load current with
compensation is
𝐼𝐿𝑐 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑐 = VGL
Which is phase with voltage, making the pf equal to unity and the total reactive power drawn
at load bus equal to zero. The value of Q is the toral reactive power at the load bus. If QL is
theload reactive power, then the reactive power of the compensator Qc = 𝑄 − QL . From the
above discussion the following points can be noted.

1) A compensator can be used to bring the pf unity

2) A purely reactive compensator can eliminate supply voltage variations

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3) If compensator such that Qc brings the pf to unity, then the total reactive power at
load bus becomes zero. Then
𝑅𝑃
∆𝑉𝑝 =
𝑉
𝑋𝑃
∆𝑉𝑞 =
𝑉
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝2 + 𝑉𝑞2
This means that a purely reactive compensator cannotmaintain both constant volta and unity
power factor.

4.8 Voltage control Using transformer:

With flexibility, transformers provide an effective way to control voltage. The various
methods are discussed in this section.

4.8.1 Tap Changing Transformers :Tap changing transformers provide a means of

voltage control by changing the turns ratio. Tap changing is usually done on the HV winding
for two reasons:
1. Since the current is lower in the HV winding, the lead, contacts etc. can be smaller.
2. Normally, the HV winding is wound outside the LV winding. So it is easy to bring
out the taps.
This requires the disconnection of the transformer if tap has to be changed. On the other hand
we can have on-load tap changing (OLTC) transformer. where the tap can be changed on
load. The OLTC transformer shown in figure 4.12

Figure 4.11 Off Load tap changer

Figure 4.12 Off Load tap changer

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The position shown is the maximum voltage position. The selector switches select the
physical tap position on the transformer winding and are not used to make or break the load
current the reactor R is centre tapped reactor. It is used to increase the impedance of the
selector circuit and limit the amount of circulating current when there is voltage difference
across the two ends. The load current should not be interrupted during a tap change. The
vacuum switch acts like a circuit breaker, to make or break the load current.
4.8.2 Booster
Transformers:

Figure 4.13Booster transformer configuration

Booster transformer is one which is often used towards the end of a power line to raise the
voltage to the desired value. It is used for controlling the voltage of a feeder at a point far
away from the main transformer.
The booster primary is fed from a regulating transformer and in fig 4.13 (b) from the tertiary
windings of the main transformer. The reverse switch reverses the polarity of the injected
voltage and hence a boost is converted into a buck. The power rating of the buck or boost
transformer is only a small fraction of that of the main transformer as it handles only the
power associated with the injected [Link] winding should not be open circuited as this
would saturate the core. Buck or boost transformers offer an economical solution to the

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adjustment of line voltages that are slightly above or below the nominal value. They are also
used in distribution feeders.
4.8.3 Phase shift transformerA phase-shifting transformer is a special type of transformer
used to control active or real power flowing through a multi-network power system. It is used
to stabilize power flow and balance the loads in the power system.

A phase-shifting transformer delivers a phase-shifted output power with a desired angle from
the input power. The phase of the output quantity can be continuously varied keeping the
magnitude constant.

Figure 4.13 Booster transformer configuration

A voltage is injected in series with line voltage as shown. Similarly injection are made in the
other two phase as well. Taps can be provided to obtain varying phase shifts.
4.9 Voltage Collapse :Voltage collapse is a particular type of blackout which occurs when
the combined generation and transmission system becomes unable to efficiently transmit the
large amounts of power demanded by consumers. Under normal conditions, voltage levels in
the grid remain high and are very uniform across the network. Conversely, when voltage
collapse occurs, voltage levels are quite low or are rapidly falling. This leads to the triggering
of protection equipment, and typically to a rolling blackout.

Question Bank
1. Explain the different methods of voltage control by reactive power injection.
2. Write short notes on following
a) Absorption to reactive power
b) Sensitivity of Voltage
c) Tap changing transformer
d) Booster transformer.
3. Explain different methods of voltage control by reactive power injection
4. Derive an expression for cost saving in installation of reactive power equipment for a
simple two-part tariff.
5. With necessary assumptions derive expression for the tie line oscillation and
conditions for critical, under and over damping.
6. Prove that voltage at receiving end is dependent on reactive power in power system.
7. Derive an approximates relation between the voltage at the receiving end the reactive
power in a simple source-load inter connector in terms of short circuit length.

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