IoT Network Layer Protocols

The network layer is divided into two sublayers: routing layer which
handles the transfer of packets from source to destination, and an
encapsulation layer that forms the packets.

RPL Protocol
RPL stands for Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Network. It is a
distance-vector protocol that supports a varity of Data Link Protocols. RPL
builds a Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph
(DODAG) which has only one route from each leaf node to the root. All
the traffic in this DODAG is routed through the root. Initially, each node
sends a DODAG Information Object (DIO) announcing them self as a root.
This information travels in the network, and complete DODAG is gradually
built. When a new node wants to join the network, it sends a DODAG
Information Solicitation (DIS) request and root responds back with a DAO
Acknowledgment (DAO-ACK) confirming the join.

CORPL Protocol
CORPL protocol is the extension of the RPL protocol, which is termed
as cognitive RPL. This network protocol is designed for cognitive
networks and uses DODAG topology. CORPL protocol makes two new
modifications in the RPL protocol. It uses opportunistic forwarding to
forward a packet between the nodes. Each node of CORPL protocol keeps
the information of forwarding set rather than parents only maintaining it.
Each node updates its changes to its neighbor using DIO messages. On
the basis of this updated message, each node frequently updates its
neighbor for constant forwarder set.

CARP Protocol
CARP (Channel-Aware Routing Protocol) is a distributed routing
protocol. It is designed for underwater communication. It has lightweight
packets so that it can be used for Internet of Things (IoT). It performs two
different functionalities: network initialization and data forwarding. CARP
protocol does not support previously collected data. Hence, it is not
beneficial for those IoT or other application where data is changed
frequently. The upgradation of CARP is done in E-CARP which overcomes
the limitation of CARP. The E-CARP allows the sink node to save previously
received sensory data.

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6LoWPAN
The 6LoWPAN protocol refers to IPv6 Low Power Personal Area
Network which uses a lightweight IP-based communication to travel over
low data rate networks. It has limited processing ability to transfer
information wirelessly using an internet protocol. So, it is mainly used for
home and building automation. The 6LoWPAN protocol operates only
within the 2.4 GHz frequency range with 250 kbps transfer rate. It has a
maximum length of 128-bit header packets.

6LowPAN Security Measure

Security is a major issue for 6LowPAN communication Protocol. There are
several attacks issues at the security level of 6LoWPAN which aim is to
direct destruction of the network. Since it is the combination of two
systems, so, there is a possibility of attack from two sides that targets all
the layer of the 6LoWPAN stack (Physical layer, Data link layer, Adaptation
layer, Network layer, Transport layer, Application layer).

Properties of 6LowPAN protocol

o Standard: RFC6282
o Frequency: Used over a variety of other networking media
including Bluetooth Smart (2.4GHz) or ZigBee or low-power RF (sub-
1GHz)
o Range: NA
o Data Rates: NA

What is 6LoWPAN?
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6LoWPAN is an IPv6 protocol, and It’s extended from is IPv6 over
Low Power Personal Area Network. As the name itself explains the
meaning of this protocol is that this protocol works on Wireless
Personal Area Network i.e., WPAN.
WPAN is a Personal Area Network (PAN) where the interconnected
devices are centered around a person’s workspace and connected
through a wireless medium. You can read more about WPAN
at WPAN. 6LoWPAN allows communication using the IPv6 protocol.
IPv6 is Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer protocol that
allows communication to take place over the network. It is faster
and more reliable and provides a large number of addresses.
6LoWPAN initially came into existence to overcome the conventional
methodologies that were adapted to transmit information. But still, it
is not so efficient as it only allows for the smaller devices with very
limited processing ability to establish communication using one of
the Internet Protocols, i.e., IPv6. It has very low cost, short-range,
low memory usage, and low bit rate.
It comprises an Edge Router and Sensor Nodes. Even the smallest of
the IoT devices can now be part of the network, and the information
can be transmitted to the outside world as well. For example, LED
Streetlights.

 It is a technology that makes the individual nodes IP

enabled.
 6LoWPAN can interact with 802.15.4 devices and also other
types of devices on an IP Network. For example, Wi-Fi.
 It uses AES 128 link layer security, which AES is a block
cipher having key size of 128/192/256 bits and encrypts
data in blocks of 128 bits each. This is defined in IEEE
802.15.4 and provides link authentication and encryption.
Basic Requirements of 6LoWPAN:
1. The device should be having sleep mode in order to support
the battery saving.
2. Minimal memory requirement.
3. Routing overhead should be lowered.
Features of 6LoWPAN:
1. It is used with IEEE 802.15,.4 in the 2.4 GHz band.
2. Outdoor range: ~200 m (maximum)
3. Data rate: 200kbps (maximum)
4. Maximum number of nodes: ~100
Advantages of 6LoWPAN:
 1. 6LoWPAN is a mesh network that is robust, scalable, and
can heal on its own.
2. It delivers low-cost and secure communication in IoT
devices.
3. It uses IPv6 protocol and so it can be directly routed to cloud
platforms.
4. It offers one-to-many and many-to-one routing.
5. In the network, leaf nodes can be in sleep mode for a longer
duration of time.
Disadvantages of 6LoWPAN:
1. It is comparatively less secure than Zigbee.
2. It has lesser immunity to interference than that Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.
3. Without the mesh topology, it supports a short range.
Applications of 6LoWPAN:
1. It is a wireless sensor network.
2. It is used in home-automation,
3. It is used in smart agricultural techniques, and industrial
monitoring.
4. It is utilised to make IPv6 packet transmission on networks
with constrained power and reliability resources possible.
Security and Interoperability with 6LoWPAN:
 Security: 6LoWPAN security is ensured by the AES
algorithm, which is a link layer security, and the transport
layer security mechanisms are included as well.
 Interoperability: 6LoWPAN is able to operate with other
wireless devices as well which makes it interoperable in a
network.

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)

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IPv6 was developed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to
deal with the problem of IPv4 exhaustion. IPv6 is a 128-bits address
having an address space of 2128, which is way bigger than IPv4. IPv6
use Hexa-Decimal format separated by colon (:) .

Components in Address format :

1. There are 8 groups and each group represents 2 Bytes (16-

bits).
2. Each Hex-Digit is of 4 bits (1 nibble)
3. Delimiter used – colon (:)
Need for IPv6:
The Main reason of IPv6 was the address depletion as the need for
electronic devices rose quickly when Internet Of Things (IOT) came
into picture after the 1980s & other reasons are related to the
slowness of the process due to some unnecessary processing, the
need for new options, support for multimedia, and the desperate
need for security. IPv6 protocol responds to the above issues using
the following main changes in the protocol:
1. Large address space
An IPv6 address is 128 bits long .compared with the 32 bit address
of IPv4, this is a huge(2 raised 96 times) increases in the address
space.
2. Better header format
IPv6 uses a new header format in which options are separated from
the base header and inserted, when needed, between the base
header and the upper layer data . This simplifies and speeds up the
routing process because most of the options do not need to be
checked by routers.
3. New options
IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
4. Allowance for extension
IPv6 is designed to allow the extension of the protocol if required by
new technologies or applications.
5. Support for resource allocation
In IPv6,the type of service field has been removed, but two new
fields , traffic class and flow label have been added to enables the
source to request special handling of the packet . this mechanism
can be used to support traffic such as real-time audio and video.
6. Support for more security
The encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide
confidentiality and integrity of the packet.
In IPv6 representation, we have three addressing methods :
 Unicast
  Multicast
 Anycast
Addressing methods
1. Unicast Address
Unicast Address identifies a single network interface. A packet sent
to a unicast address is delivered to the interface identified by that
address.
2. Multicast Address
Multicast Address is used by multiple hosts, called as groups,
acquires a multicast destination address. These hosts need not be
geographically together. If any packet is sent to this multicast
address, it will be distributed to all interfaces corresponding to that
multicast address. And every node is configured in the same way. In
simple words, one data packet is sent to multiple destinations
simultaneously.
3. Anycast Address
Anycast Address is assigned to a group of interfaces. Any packet
sent to an anycast address will be delivered to only one member
interface (mostly nearest host possible).
Note: Broadcast is not defined in IPv6.
Types of IPv6 address:
We have 128 bits in IPv6 address but by looking at the first few bits
we can identify what type of address it is.

Prefix Allocation Fraction of Address Space

0000 0000 Reserved 1/256

0000 0001 Unassigned (UA) 1/256

0000 001 Reserved for NSAP 1/128

0000 01 UA 1/64

0000 1 UA 1/32

0001 UA 1/16
 Prefix Allocation Fraction of Address Space

001 Global Unicast 1/8

010 UA 1/8

011 UA 1/8

100 UA 1/8

101 UA 1/8

110 UA 1/8

1110 UA 1/16

1111 0 UA 1/32

1111 10 UA 1/64

1111 110 UA 1/128

1111 1110 0 UA 1/512

1111 1110 10 Link-Local Unicast Addresses 1/1024

1111 1110 11 Site-Local Unicast Addresses 1/1024

1111 1111 Multicast Address 1/256

Note: In IPv6, all 0’s and all 1’s can be assigned to any host, there is
not any restriction like IPv4.
Provider-based Unicast address :
These are used for global communication.

The First 3 bits identify it as of this type.

Registry Id (5-bits): Registry Id identifies the region to which it
belongs. Out of 32 (i.e. 2^5), only 4 registry IDs are being used.

Provider Id: Depending on the number of service providers that

operate under a region, certain bits will be allocated to the Provider
Id field. This field need not be fixed. Let’s say if Provider Id = 10 bits
then Subscriber Id will be 56 – 10 = 46 bits.
Subscriber Id: After Provider Id is fixed, the remaining part can be
used by ISP as a normal IP address.
Intra Subscriber: This part can be modified as per the need of the
organization that is using the service.
Geography based Unicast address :

Global routing prefix: Global routing prefix contains all the details
of Latitude and Longitude. As of now, it is not being used. In
Geography-based Unicast address routing will be based on location.
Interface Id: In IPv6, instead of using Host Id, we use the term
Interface Id.
Some special addresses:
Unspecified
Loopback

IPv4 Compatible

IPv4 mapped

Local Unicast Addresses :

These are of two types: Link-local and Site-Local
1. Link-local address:

A link-local address is used for addressing a single link. It can also

be used to communicate with nodes on the same link. The link-local
address always begins with 1111111010 (i.e. FE80). The router will
not forward any packet with Link-local address.

2. Site local address:

Site local addresses are equivalent to a private IP address in IPv4.
Likely, some address space is reserved, which can only be routed
within an organization. The first 10-bits are set to 1111111011,
which is why Site local addresses always begin with FEC0. The
following 32 bits are Subnet IDs, which can be used to create a
subnet within the organization. The node address is used to uniquely
identify the link; therefore, we use a 48-bits MAC address here.

Advantages of IPv6 :
1. Realtime Data Transmission : Realtime data transmission
refers to the process of transmitting data in a very fast manner
or immediately. Example : Live streaming services such as cricket
matches, or other tournament that are streamed on web exactly as
soon as it happens with a maximum delay of 5-6 seconds.
2. IPv6 supports authentication: Verifying that the data received
by the receiver from the sender is exactly what the sender sent and
came through the sender only not from any third party. Example :
Matching the hash value of both the messages for verification is also
done by IPv6.
3. IPv6 performs Encryption: Ipv6 can encrypt the message at
network layer even if the protocols of application layer at user level
didn’t encrypt the message which is a major advantage as it takes
care of encryption.
4. Faster processing at Router: Routers are able to process data
packets of Ipv6 much faster due to smaller Base header of fixed
size – 40 bytes which helps in decreasing processing time resulting
in more efficient packet transmission. Whereas in Ipv4, we have to
calculate the length of header which lies between 20-60 bytes.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol, designed to
succeed IPv4. It was developed to address the limitations of IPv4, mainly the exhaustion of available
addresses and the need for improved security and efficiency. Here's an overview of IPv6's structure,
addressing, routing, and common interconnecting issues:

### Structure:

**Address Format:** IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long, compared to the 32-bit length of IPv4
addresses. The expanded address space allows for a significantly larger number of unique addresses.

**Notation:** IPv6 addresses are usually represented in hexadecimal notation, using eight groups of
four hexadecimal digits separated by colons. For example:
`2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334`.
**Address Types:** IPv6 supports various types of addresses, including unicast (one-to-one),
multicast (one-to-many), and anycast (one-to-nearest) addresses.

### Addressing:

**Allocation:** IPv6 addresses are typically allocated based on a hierarchical structure by Internet
registries, ISPs, and organizations. They often include a network prefix and an interface identifier.

**Prefixes:** IPv6 uses prefixes to define the network portion of the address. Common prefixes
include /64 for local subnets.

### Routing:

**Routing Protocol:** IPv6 uses routing protocols such as OSPFv3, RIPng, and BGP (Border Gateway
Protocol) for routing and forwarding packets.

**Neighbor Discovery Protocol:** This protocol in IPv6 helps nodes discover neighboring nodes on
the same link, find each other's link-layer addresses, and even detect duplicate addresses.

### Interconnecting Issues:

**Transition from IPv4:** One significant challenge is the coexistence and transition from IPv4 to
IPv6. Dual-stack configurations, tunneling mechanisms (like 6to4, 6rd, and Teredo), and translation
techniques (such as NAT64 and DNS64) are used to facilitate this transition.

**Compatibility:** Ensuring compatibility between IPv6 and existing IPv4 infrastructure,

applications, and devices can be a concern during the transition phase.

**Security Concerns:** As with any new technology, security issues in the implementation of IPv6
can arise. It's crucial to implement security measures to protect against potential vulnerabilities.

**Configuration and Deployment:** Configuring IPv6 across a network and ensuring proper
deployment without disruptions can be complex, especially in large-scale environments.
IPv6 offers a vast address space and enhancements over IPv4, but its widespread adoption involves
addressing technical, operational, and deployment challenges to ensure a smooth transition and
effective utilization across the internet infrastructure.

6LoWPAN: forwarding, addressing, header compression, neighbour

discovery
6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks) is a technology that enables
the use of IPv6 over low-power, low-bandwidth wireless networks, typically used in IoT (Internet
of Things) applications. It addresses the challenges of efficiently transmitting IPv6 packets over
such constrained networks. Here's a breakdown of key aspects:

### Forwarding:

**Mesh Topology:** 6LoWPAN networks often employ a mesh topology where devices can act
as routers, forwarding packets for other devices, allowing for more extensive network coverage
and resilience against node failures.

**Routing Protocol:** Various routing protocols are used within 6LoWPAN networks, such as
RPL (Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks), which supports efficient routing in
resource-constrained environments.

### Addressing:

**IPv6 Addressing:** 6LoWPAN uses IPv6 addressing for devices within the network, enabling
direct communication with other IPv6-enabled devices on the internet.

**64-bit Addressing:** It typically utilizes 64-bit IPv6 addresses to conserve resources in low-
power devices and accommodate the limited memory and processing capabilities.

### Header Compression:

**Compression Techniques:** 6LoWPAN employs header compression mechanisms to reduce

the overhead of IPv6 and other required headers, optimizing the use of limited bandwidth.
**Adaptation Layer:** It introduces an adaptation layer that compresses IPv6 and UDP headers
to minimize the overhead associated with transmitting IPv6 packets over low-power wireless
networks.

### Neighbor Discovery:

**Neighbor Discovery Protocol:** Similar to IPv6, 6LoWPAN uses Neighbor Discovery Protocol
(NDP) to enable devices to discover and maintain information about neighboring devices within
the same network.

**Efficiency:** In 6LoWPAN, NDP mechanisms are optimized for low-power and resource-
constrained devices to minimize energy consumption and communication overhead.

### Challenges:

**Interoperability:** Ensuring interoperability between different 6LoWPAN devices and

networks can be a challenge due to variations in implementations and standards adherence.

**Security:** As with any network protocol, ensuring security in 6LoWPAN networks is crucial.
Securing communication and preventing unauthorized access or attacks is an ongoing concern.

**Scalability:** Managing and scaling 6LoWPAN networks as the number of devices grows
requires efficient routing, addressing, and management mechanisms.

6LoWPAN is significant for extending IPv6 capabilities to low-power, low-bandwidth devices,

enabling them to communicate over the internet while overcoming the limitations posed by
their resource-constrained nature.

Routing in LLN
In Low-Power and Lossy Networks (LLNs), which are characteristic of environments with
constrained resources, unique routing protocols are used to facilitate communication among
devices. LLNs encompass scenarios like IoT deployments, sensor networks, and industrial
automation where devices have limited power, memory, and often exhibit unreliable
connectivity. Routing in LLNs addresses these challenges:
### Characteristics of LLNs:

1. **Constrained Devices:** Devices in LLNs have limited resources in terms of power, memory,
and processing capabilities.

2. **Intermittent Connectivity:** Connections in LLNs can be sporadic due to the nature of

wireless communication or energy-saving protocols that switch devices between active and
sleep modes.

### Routing Protocols for LLNs:

1. **RPL (Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks):** One of the primary routing
protocols for LLNs, RPL is designed to support IPv6-based, energy-efficient routing in networks
where devices have limited power and often form a mesh topology. It enables efficient routing
by leveraging storing mode (where nodes maintain routing tables) or non-storing mode (where
only certain nodes maintain routing information).

2. **6LoWPAN Routing:** Specifically designed for 6LoWPAN networks, this routing protocol
aims to efficiently manage the transmission of IPv6 packets over low-power wireless networks.

### Routing Considerations:

1. **Energy Efficiency:** Routing protocols in LLNs focus on energy-efficient strategies to

minimize communication overhead and device power consumption.

2. **Adaptability:** LLN routing protocols should adapt to changing network topologies, node
failures, and intermittent connectivity.

3. **Topology Management:** Given the dynamic nature of LLNs, efficient management of

network topology and handling node mobility are crucial aspects of routing.

### Challenges in LLN Routing:

1. **Scalability:** Managing large-scale networks while maintaining efficiency and adaptability
poses a challenge due to limited resources.

2. **Security:** Implementing secure routing mechanisms to protect against various threats is

essential in LLNs.

3. **Reliability:** Ensuring reliable communication paths despite intermittent connectivity and

potential node failures is critical.

LLNs require specialized routing protocols that cater to the unique characteristics and constraints
of the devices and environments they operate in. These protocols prioritize energy efficiency,
adaptability, and reliability to facilitate communication within these resource-constrained
networks.

IoT Data Link layer

In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), the data link layer plays a crucial role in facilitating
communication between devices within a local network. This layer is responsible for the reliable
transfer of data frames between connected devices and handles issues related to physical
addressing, access to the physical medium, and error detection and correction. Here are some
key aspects of the IoT data link layer:

### Protocols and Standards:

1. **IEEE 802.15.4:** Commonly used in low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs),
IEEE 802.15.4 is a standard that defines the physical and MAC layers for low-power, low-data-
rate wireless connectivity. It's often used in IoT devices due to its energy efficiency.

2. **Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE):** A protocol built on the Bluetooth standard, BLE is designed
for low-power, short-range communication and is widely used in various IoT applications like
wearables, smart home devices, and beacon technology.

3. **Zigbee:** Another protocol built on IEEE 802.15.4, Zigbee provides a mesh networking
standard for IoT devices. It's known for its low power consumption, scalability, and ability to
support a large number of devices in a network.
4. **Thread:** An IPv6-based protocol designed for IoT, Thread uses IEEE 802.15.4 and offers
secure, reliable, and low-power connectivity for smart home and commercial applications.

### Functions of the Data Link Layer in IoT:

1. **Addressing:** Assigning unique MAC addresses to devices to enable communication within

a network.

2. **Error Detection and Correction:** Implementing error-checking mechanisms to ensure the

integrity of transmitted data and, in some cases, applying error correction techniques to recover
lost information.

3. **Medium Access Control (MAC):** Managing access to the shared physical medium (wireless
or wired) to prevent collisions and regulate the transmission of data frames among devices.

4. **Frame Formatting and Parsing:** Dividing data into frames for transmission and
reassembling received frames into usable data at the receiving end.

### Challenges and Considerations:

1. **Power Efficiency:** IoT devices often operate on limited power sources, requiring data link
layer protocols to minimize energy consumption during communication.

2. **Interoperability:** Ensuring that devices using different protocols or standards can

communicate and interoperate within the same IoT ecosystem.

3. **Security:** Implementing secure communication channels and access control measures to

protect IoT networks from unauthorized access and attacks.

The data link layer protocols and standards used in IoT vary based on the specific requirements
of the application, balancing factors such as power consumption, range, data rate, and network
size to enable efficient communication among IoT devices within a local network.