MATH 1001

Calculus for Life Sciences

Lecture Notes
Chapter 1: Essentials

M.H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell

Contents
1.1The Real Numbers 2
1.2 Solution of Equations 8
1.3 Inequalities 13
1.4 Exponents and Radicals 18
1.5 The XY Plane (or ℛ2 ) 20
1.6 Angles and Trigonometric Numbers 24
1.7 Practice Problems 37
Appendix (1A) Alternate interval notation 43

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 1

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 Chapter 1: Essentials
This chapter provides a review of some essential background, precalculus, materials.
Mathematics is a hierarchical subject, that is each new topic introduces new concepts but
also builds on previous concepts and skills. Understanding and being able to use the
concepts and skills mentioned in this chapter is essential to success in understanding and
being able to use calculus developed in the following chapters.

1.1 The Real Numbers

1.1.1 Sets of Numbers

In calculus, developed in the following Chapters, quantities are assumed to have values in
the set of real numbers, i.e. the set of all numbers that have a decimal expression (even if
that decimal expression can never be completely written down!). To construct the set of
real numbers, the following sets are considered.

• The Natural Numbers, ℕ, are the positive whole numbers used for counting,
{1, 2, 3, … }
• The Integers, ℤ, is the set containing the natural numbers, the negatives of the
natural numbers and zero, i.e., {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• The rational numbers, ℚ, are the set of all numbers that can be expressed as the
ratio of two integers, 𝑎/𝑏 where b is not equal to zero. For example, 32/7 =
4. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
571428. (The bar over the sequence of numbers indicates that the sequence is
repeated indefinitely; if a single number is repeated indefinitely a dot is placed over
it). A rational number always terminates with a sequence (or single number) that
10 1
repeats indefinitely, such as = 1.66̇ or terminates with a finite pattern such as =
6 8
0.125.
• Irrational numbers, ℍ, are the set of numbers that cannot be expressed as the ratio
of two integers. Examples of irrational numbers include the square root of 2, √2 ≈
1.4142, and the constant which relates the area of any circle to its radius, 𝜋 ≈
3.1416. The decimal expression of an irrational number does not terminate with
either a repeating infinite pattern or a finite pattern. I.e. approximations for irrational
numbers can, in principle, be calculated to any number of specified decimal places
but the sequence of decimal digits is never complete.
• The set of Real Numbers, ℝ, is the set of numbers that contains all the sets listed
above.

The set of real numbers have the following properties which are important in
calculus

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 2

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 ▪ This set is “dense” in the sense that given any two real numbers, 𝑎 and 𝑏, no
matter how small the difference between them, there are always more real
numbers between them.
▪ For any two distinct real numbers, 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏, either 𝑏 > 𝑎 or 𝑏 < 𝑎. In this sense,
the real numbers are ordered. Therefore, hypothetically, we can represent the
real numbers as the points on a line called the real line.

Taken together these two properties mean that for any two numbers 𝑥 and 𝑥 + ℎ we
can consider what happens to the function 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) when ℎ approaches zero but is
not equal to zero.

Figure 1.1: This Venn diagram schematically describes the set of real numbers.

1.1.2 Why can’t I divide by zero?

For any two real numbers, 𝑎 and 𝑏, the result of the addition,𝑎 + 𝑏, subtraction, 𝑎 − 𝑏, and
multiplication operations, 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏, is a real number. This is also true of division, 𝑎/𝑏,
providing that 𝑏 is not equal to zero. If 𝑏 = 0, then 𝑎/𝑏 is undefined (meaningless)
regardless of the value of 𝑎. To illustrate, consider the following in which the same
operation is applied to each side of the equation at each step

𝑎=𝑏

Multiply both sides by 𝑏

𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 2

Subtract 𝑎2 from each side of the equation

𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 − 𝑎2

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 3

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Factor each side of the equation

𝑎(𝑏 − 𝑎) = (𝑏 + 𝑎)(𝑏 − 𝑎)

Divide each side by the common factor of (𝑏 − 𝑎)

𝑎 =𝑏+𝑎

As 𝑎 = 𝑏, replace 𝑏 by 𝑎

𝑎 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 2𝑎

Divide each side by 𝑎

1=2

Hmm, clearly an absurd result. What went wrong? When the common factor of (𝑏 − 𝑎) was
cancelled out by dividing by (𝑏 − 𝑎), both sides of the equation were divided by zero, the
result was meaningless.

1.1.2 Intervals on the real line

A finite interval is the set of all real numbers between two specified real numbers, 𝑎 and 𝑏,
such that 𝑎 is less than 𝑏, and can be thought of as the section of the real line between the
points on the line representing the the real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏. In this course interval
notation using round, ( ), and square, [ ], brackets is used. A round bracket, (𝑎 or 𝑏),
denotes that the interval is open at that end, i.e. the specified end value is not included in
the interval. A square bracket, [𝑎 or 𝑏], denotes that the interval is closed at that end, i.e.
the specified end value is included in the interval.

Basic forms of interval notation are shown in the table below.

Interval Type Notation Meaning
Open (𝑎, 𝑏) All real numbers between 𝑎 and 𝑏 (but excluding
𝑎 and 𝑏).
Closed [𝑎, 𝑏] All real numbers between 𝑎 and 𝑏, and 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Mixed [𝑎, 𝑏) All real numbers between 𝑎 and 𝑏, and 𝑎 (but
(Open at excluding 𝑏).
one end)
Mixed (𝑎, 𝑏] All real numbers between 𝑎 and 𝑏, and 𝑏 (but
(Open at excluding 𝑎).
one end)

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 4

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
The infinity symbol, ∞ is used to denote intervals which do not terminate at a real number.
As ∞ is not a real number the end of the interval that is indicated by either ∞ or −∞ is
always open. Examples are included in the table below.

Function Interpretation
(−∞, ∞) All real numbers (equivalently, 𝑓(𝑥) is defined at all
points on the real line).
[0,2𝜋) All real numbers greater than or equal to zero but
less than 2𝜋
(0,2𝜋) The set of all real numbers greater than zero but
less than 2𝜋
(0, ∞) The set of all positive real numbers
(−∞, 2] The set of all numbers less than or equal to 2 (only)
(−∞, −3) All real numbers less than -3 (only).

Some set notation is useful when dealing with intervals. For this course, the symbols ∈
(in), ∪ (union) and ∩ (𝑖ntersection) are useful. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are each a set of numbers, their
union, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set of all numbers that are in 𝐴 or 𝐵 or both, however, their intersection,
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the set of all numbers that are in both 𝐴 and 𝐵. Examples of the use of these
symbols with intervals are given in the table below.

Expression Interpretation
𝑥 ∈ (−3,3) 𝑥 is in the open interval from -3 to 3
𝑥 ∈ [0, ∞) 𝑥 is a non-negative real number
𝑥 ∈ [0,5] ∪ [3,10] 𝑥 is in the closed interval from 0 to 10. This expression is
equivalent to the more compact expression 𝑥 ∈ [0,10].
𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞) 𝑥 is a real number in the set consisting of all negative
real numbers and all positive real numbers greater than
1.
𝑥 ∈ [0,5] ∩ [3,10] 𝑥 is in the closed interval from 3 to 5. This expression is
equivalent to the more compact expression 𝑥 ∈ [3,5].
𝑥 ∈ (−5, ∞) ∩ (−∞, 5) 𝑥 is in the set of all real numbers that are greater than -5
but less than 5. This expression is equivalent to the more
compact expression 𝑥 ∈ (−5,5)

The empty set is denoted by 𝜙. If two sets of numbers, 𝐴 and 𝐵, have no numbers in
common their intersection is the empty set, i.e. there are no numbers in it, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝜙. In
this case, the two set are said to be disjoint.

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 5

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Example 1: The two intervals (−2,5) and (5,6) are disjoint, i.e., (−2,5) ∩ (5,6) = 𝜙. True or
False?

Solution: True. The first interval contains only real numbers less than 5 but greater than -2, the
second interval contains only real numbers greater than 5 and less than 6. Therefore, the two
intervals have no numbers in common, their intersection is empty, they are disjoint.

1.1.3 Distance in ℝ

A point in ℝ is represented as a single number of the form x = c. For example, in Figure 1.1, x =
0, x = 4.6, and x = -1.7 are points in ℝ.

We can also represent two points in ℝ, such as x = a and x = b. There are three possible choices
for a and b: a = b, a > b, or b > a. On the real line, the larger number is represented to the right
of the smaller number.

Let b > a be two points in  . Define distance between the two points as: D = Terminal Point –
Initial Point. Assuming that we move from left to right, then a is the initial point and b the terminal
point. Thus, D = b − a.

Example 2: Find the distance between the points x = -4 and x = 3.

Solution: D = terminal point – initial point = 3 – (-4) =7.

Suppose we wish to find the equal distances between 0 and a, and between 0 and –a. Then using
D = Terminal Point – Initial Point, we have:
D = a−0= a
D = 0 − (−a) = −(−a) = a.

1.1.4 Absolute Values

We know that distance D is a non-negative quantity. Now, let us denote a non-negative quantity
using the symbol . (known as the absolute value symbol). We thus define

D=  a if a  0
a =
 − a if a  0

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 6

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Example 3:

5 = 5 , since 5  0.

0 = 0 , since 0  0.

− 5 = −(−5) = 5 , since − 5  0.

Properties of the Absolute Value:

i) a  0 ; a = 0 if and only if a = 0.

ii) a = + a2

2 n
iii) a = a 2 ; a = a n if n is an even,

iv) −a = a .

v) ab = a b .

a a
vi) = .
b b

vii) a + b  a + b (Triangle Inequality).

viii) Distance between a and b = a − b = b − a .

(-a)---------0---------(a)

D D

Figure 1.2: Distance between −𝑎 and 0 and the distance between 0 and 𝑎 on the real line.

The distance between the end points of an interval, (𝑎, 𝑏), is the length of the interval, i.e., the
length of (𝑎, 𝑏) is |𝑏 − 𝑎|. The length of the interval is unaffected by the interval being open or
closed (or mixed).

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 7

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Notice that the absolute operation, ||, also applies to variables, i.e.,
|𝑥| = 𝑥, if 𝑥 is zero or positive, and

|𝑥| = −𝑥 if 𝑥 is negative

Example 4: When is |𝑥 2 − 𝑥| = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 and when is |𝑥 2 − 𝑥| = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ?

Solution: Notice that 𝑥 2 is always positive, therefore, 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 is always positive if 𝑥 is negative.

If 𝑥 is positive but less than 1, 𝑥 2 is less than 𝑥, therefore 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 is negative when 𝑥 is between 0
and 1. If 𝑥 is greater than 1, 𝑥 2 is greater than 𝑥, therefore 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 is positive when 𝑥 is greater
than 1. Therefore, |𝑥 2 − 𝑥| = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 if 𝑥 is zero or negative, and if 𝑥 is greater than or equal to
1. If 𝑥 is between zero and 1, |𝑥 2 − 𝑥| = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .

1.2 Solution of Equations

1.2.1 Definitions

An equation is a statement that two mathematical expressions are equal.

Components of an equation are: a left-hand-side (LHS), a right-hand-side (RHS) and an equal

sign (=). The LHS and RHS involve an unknown variable (or variables), real numbers and
algebraic operations. For example, 3x-2=5 is an equation in the unknown variable x.

To solve an equation involving one variable is to find the value(s) of the variable for which the
equation is true. Methods of solution depend in part on whether the equation is linear or
nonlinear. If the variable in an equation is raised to a power of 1, and what multiplies the variable
(the coefficient) is not a variable, the equation is linear. Otherwise, it is nonlinear.
Example 5: The following are linear equations:

1) 4 x + 1 = 0

2) 6 − x = 1

3) 4 x − 3 = 2( x + 2) + 10 .

Example 6: The following are nonlinear equations:

1) 4 x 3 + 1 = 0

2) 6 − x = 1

3) 3x 2 − 5 = 0 .

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 8

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 We are interested in solving algebraic equations, and polynomial equations of the form:

an x n + an −1 x n −1 + ... + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 = 0

where n is a nonnegative integer and each ai is a real number with an not zero.

1.2.2 Methods of Solution 1: Linear Equations

For n = 1, the above polynomial equation takes the form: a1 x + a0 = 0. We solve this equation
by transposing a0 to the RHS of the equation to get: a1 x = −a0 , followed by dividing both sides
a0
of this last equation by a1  0 . This gives: x = − . Note that a linear equation has one solution.
a1

Example 7: Solve the following linear equation: 4 x + 1 = 0

1
Solution: 4 x + 1 = 0  4 x = −1  x = − .
4
Solution of Linear Equations Involving the Absolute Value:

Solutions to X = A , where A  0 , are X =  A .

Example 8: Solve the following equations:

a) x = 0.

Solution: x = 0.

b) x = 4.

Solution: x = 4.

c) 3 x = 7.

7
Solution: 3x = 7 or x =  .
3

d) − 6 x = 4.

4
Solution: − 6 x = 4 or x =  .
6

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 9

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 e) 4 x − 2 = 0.

2 1
Solution: 4 x − 2 = 0 or 4 x = 2 or x = = .
4 2

f) 5 − 4 x = 3.

Solution: 5 − 4 x = 3 or − 4 x = −5  3 or x = −8,−2.

1.2.3 Methods of Solution 2:Quadratic Equations

For n = 2, the above polynomial equation takes the form: a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 = 0. We usually write
a quadratic equation in the form: ax 2 + bx + c = 0.

We solve this equation by: factoring, grouping terms, the square root method, or using the
quadratic formula.

A quadratic equation can have: no solution, one solution or two solutions, depending on the sign
of the discriminant,  = b 2 − 4ac , of the quadratic expression. The following three cases arise:

If   0 the quadratic equation does not have real solutions, and we say the
equation does not have a solution.

If  = 0 then the quadratic equation has one real solutions.

If   0 then the quadratic equation has two real solutions.

Solution using the quadratic formula:

−b 
Solutions to ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are given by: x = , where  = b 2 − 4ac .
2a

Example 9: Solve the given equation:

i) x2 + x + 1 = 0

Solution: Compare this equation with ax 2 + bx + c = 0 and identify: a = 1, b=1, c=1.

 = b 2 − 4ac = 12 − 4(1)(1) = −3  0 . Therefore, equation has no real solutions.

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 10

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 ii) x 2 + 2 x + 1 = 0

Solution: Compare this equation with ax 2 + bx + c = 0 and identify: a = 1, b=2, c=1.

 = b 2 − 4ac = 22 − 4(1)(1) = 0 . Therefore, equation has one real solution.

−b  −b −2
x= = = = −1.
2a 2a 2(1)

iii) x + x − 1 = 0
2

Solution: Compare this equation with ax 2 + bx + c = 0 and identify: a = 1, b=1, c=-1.

 = b 2 − 4ac = 12 − 4(1)(−1) = 5 . Therefore, equation has two real solutions.

− b   −1 5 −1− 5 −1+ 5

x= = . Solutions are: x = or x = .
2a 2(1) 2 2

Solution by factoring and by square root method:

We may be able to write the expression ax 2 + bx + c as a product of two linear factors if:

i) b= 0 and a and c are of opposite signs. Here, we make use of the special factoring of
A2 − B 2 = ( A − B)( A + B).

Example 10: Solve the equations:

a) x 2 − 25 = 0.

Solution: x 2 − 25 = 0  ( x − 5)( x + 5) = 0  x − 5 = 0 or x + 5 = 0. Thus, x = 5 or x = -5.

b) 16 − 5 x 2 = 0.

Solution: 16 − 5 x 2 = 0  (4 − 5 x)(4 + 5 x) = 0  (4 − 5 x) = 0 or (4 + 5 x) = 0. Thus,

4 4
x= or x = − .
5 5

Note that the expression A2 + B 2 is a sum of two squares (always non-negative) and cannot be
factored.

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 11

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 Other factoring formulas are:

X 2 + 2 AX + A2 = ( X + A) 2

X 2 − 2 AX + A2 = ( X − A) 2 .

Example 11: Solve the given equation if possible:

a) x 2 + 10 = 0.

Solution: This is a sum of two squares that cannot be zero.

b) x 2 + 4 x + 4 = 0.

Solution:

x 2 + 4 x + 4 = 0  ( x + 2) 2 = 0  x + 2 = 0  x = −2.

100
c) 3x 2 − 10 x + = 0.
9

Solution:

20 100 10 10 10
x2 − x+ = 0  ( x − )2 = 0  x − = 0  x = .
3 9 3 3 3

ii) The square root method involves isolating x 2 and taking the square toot of both sides.

Example 12: Solve the given equation using the square root method:

1) x 2 − 9 = 0

Solution: We write x 2 − 9 = 0 as x 2 = 9 , then take square root of both sides to get:

x =  9 = 3.

2) 3 x 2 − 1 = 0

Solution: We write 3 x 2 − 1 = 0 as 3 x 2 = 1 , then take square root of both sides to get:

1 −1
x= or x = .
3 3

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 12

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 iii) a, b, and c are integers and we can write ax 2 + bx + c = ( A1 x + B1 )( A2 x + B2 ).

We are thus looking for A1 , A2 , B1 , B1 such that A1 A2 = a; B1B2 = c; A1B2 + A2 B1 = b.

Example 13: Solve the given equation by factoring, if possible:

1) x 2 + 5 x + 6 = 0

Factoring, we have: x 2 + 5 x + 6 = ( x + 3)( x + 2) = 0. Thus, x+3=0 or x+2=0, and solutions

are: x = -3 or x = -2.

2) 3.005 x 2 − 10.4 x − 0.001 = 0 . [This is not so easy to factor!].

1.2.4 Methods of Solution 3: Higher Order Polynomial Equations:

In the absence of a general method to solve cubic and other higher order equations, we use
factoring. Here are a few factoring formulas for a cubic expression:

X 3 − A3 = ( X − A)( X 2 + AX + A2 )

X 3 + A3 = ( X + A)( X 2 − AX + A2 )

X 3 + 3 AX 2 + 3 A2 X + A3 = ( X + A) 3

X 3 − 3 AX 2 + 3 A2 X − A3 = ( X − A) 3 .

Example 14: Solve the given equation, if possible: x 3 − 1 = 0 .

Solution: x 3 − 1 = 0  ( x − 1)( x 2 − x + 1) = 0  x − 1 = 0 or x 2 − x + 1 = 0 .

x − 1 = 0  x = 1. x 2 − x + 1 = 0 has no real solution.

1.3 Inequalities

1.3.1 Properties of Inequalities

An inequality is a statement of the inequalities of mathematical expressions. It contains one or

more of the symbols: ≠, ≥, >, ≤, <The interpretation of these symbols is summarized in the table
below

Inequality Interpretation
𝑎≠𝑏 𝑎 is not equal to 𝑏
𝑎≥𝑏 𝑎 is equal to or greater than 𝑏
𝑎>𝑏 𝑎 is (strictly) greater than 𝑏

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 13

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 𝑎≤𝑏 𝑎 is less than or equal to 𝑏
𝑎<𝑏 𝑎 is (strictly) less than 𝑏

The following operations do not affect the solution to an inequality:

(i) We can add or subtract the same number from both sides of an inequality.
Thus, if for instance a  b and c is any real number then a + c  b + c.
(ii) We can multiply or divide an inequality by a positive number.
a b
Thus, if for instance a  b and c is a positive number then ac  bc and  .
c c
(iii) If we multiply or divide an inequality by a negative number, the sign of the
inequality reverses.
a b
Thus, if for instance a  b and c is a negative number then ac  bc and  .
c c

1 1
(iv) For nonzero a and b, if a  b then  .
a b

1.3.2 Solution of Inequalities 1: Linear Inequalities

Inequalities containing

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ≤ 0,

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 < 0,

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ≥ 0, and/or

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 > 0

The method of solution involves isolation of x ( separating the variable from the constants) using
the technique used for linear equations (Section 1.2.2).

Case 1: Inequalities of the Form ax+b > cx+d

Example: Solve the inequality: 2 x + 3  −2.

5
Solution: 2 x  −3 − 2 or 2 x  −5 or x  − .
2

Case 2: Inequalities of the Form a  bx + c  d

Example 16: Solve the inequality: 2  1 − 5 x  5.

Solution:

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 14

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Subtract 1 from all sides: 2 − 1  1 − 5 x − 1  5 − 1 or 1  −5 x  4 .

1 4
Divide all sides by − 5 (and change the direction of inequalities): − x− .
5 5

Case 3: Inequalities of the Form ax + b  cx + d  ex + f

Example 17: Solve the inequality: x  3 − 2 x  6.

Solution: x  3 − 2 x  6  x  3 − 2 x and 3 − 2 x  6.

Now, x  3 − 2 x  x + 2 x  3 or 3x  3 or x  1, and

3
3 − 2 x  6  −2 x  6 − 3 = 3 or x  − .
2

3
Thus −  x  1.
2

Case 4: Inequalities involving the absolute value:

If x  k then − k  x  k , where k  0.

If x  k then − k  x  k , where k  0.

If x  k then x  k or x  −k , where k  0.

If x  k then x  k or x  −k , where k  0.

Example 18: Solve the given inequality:

a) 3 x − 2  5.

Solution: 3 x − 2  5  −5  3 x − 2  5  −5 + 2  3 x  5 + 2  −3  3 x  7

7
or − 1  x  .
3

b) 4 − x  1.

Solution: 4 − x  1  4 − x  1 or 4 − x  −1 .

4 − x  1  4 − 1  x  x  3.

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 15

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 4 − x  −1  4 + 1  x  x  5.

Thus x  3 or x  5.

1.3.3 Solving Inequalities 2: Non-linear Inequalities

Quadratic Inequalities.

The general forms for quadratic inequalities are:

ax2+ bx + c > 0
ax2+ bx + c < 0
ax2+ bx + c  0
ax2+ bx + c  0

The number line plays an important role in solving factorable quadratic inequalities.

Example 19: Solve the following quadratic inequality: x2+ x -12  0.

Step 1: Set the LHS to zero and find x.

Factoring, we get: ( x + 4 )( x - 3 )= 0.
Thus, (𝑥 + 4) = 0 𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 3) = 0
That is 𝑥 = −4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3

Step 2: Plot the solutions on the real line.

The numbers -4 and 3 are the critical numbers for the inequality, which are then plotted on the
number line.

The number line is divided into three intervals; (- , -4); (-4, 3) and (3, ).

Step 3: Select test numbers and test the sign of the LHS of the inequality.

We find test numbers in each interval to determine the signs of the factors, x + 4 and x - 3, and
consequently, the product of these factors ( x + 4 )( x - 3).

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 16

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
The diagram shows the signs of the factors for each interval and also the sign of the product of
the factors for each interval.

From the number line it can be clearly seen that the solution to the inequality x2+ x -12  0
is (- , -4]  [ 3, ).

Example 20: Solve x2-35  2x.

We write the inequality as: x2-2x -35  0 and factor it to get: ( x + 5 )( x - 7 )  0

Step 1: Set ( x + 5 )( x - 7 ) = 0 and solve to get: x + 5 = 0 or x - 7 = 0. Solutions are:

x = -5 or x = 7.

Step 2: Represent the solution on the real line as shown.

Step 3: Test the signs of the LHS of the inequality on the intervals.

INCLUDEPICTURE "[Link] \*

MERGEFORMATINET

Thus, ( x + 5 )( x - 7 )  0 on [ -5, 7 ]. Solutions are: − 5  x  7.

Rational Inequalities:

x+4
Example 21: Solve the inequality  0.
x−2

Step 1: Find where the numerator and denominator are zero.

Step 2: Represent the points from Step 1 on the real line.

Step 3: Test the signs of the LHS of inequality on the resulting intervals.

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 17

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
x+4=0 and x-2=0
x = -4 x=2

The solution set is ( -4, 2 )

1.4 Exponents and Radicals

1.4.1 Exponents (Powers):

Let x and y be variables, and m and n positive integers. The following laws can then be established
and used in manipulating algebraic functions.

x n = x.x.x....x (n factors)

1
x −n = provided that x  0.
xn

x m .x n = x m+ n

xm
n
= x m x −n = x m−n provided that x  0.
x

( x m ) n = x mn

x 0 = 1 provided that x  0. Note that (0) 0 is undefined.

x n y n = ( xy) n
n
x xn
  = n provided that y  0.
 y y

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 18

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Example 22: The above laws are illustrated as follows:

a) x 3 = x.x.x. (3 factors)
1
b) x −3 = 3 provided that x  0.
x
c) x .x = x 2+4 = x 6
2 4

x7
d) 4 = x 7 x −4 = x 7−4 = x 3 provided that x  0.
x
e) ( x 2 ) 3 = x 2 (3) = x 6
f) x 0 = 1 provided that x  0. Note that (0) 0 is undefined.
g) x 4 y 4 = (xy) 4
5
x x5
h)   = 5 provided that y  0.
 y y
1.4.2 Radicals (Roots):

Let x and y be variables, and m and n positive integers. The following laws can then be established
and used in manipulating algebraic functions.

x1/ n = n x

1 1
x −1/ n = 1/ n
= n provided that x  0.
x x

x m / n = x1/ n( ) = ( x ) = (x )
m n
m m 1/ n
= n xm

x1/ m .x1/ n = m x .n x = x (1/ m )+(1/ n )

x1/ m m
x
= = x1/ m−1/ n provided that x  0.
x1/ n n
x

( x1/ m )1/ n = x1/( mn ) = mn x

x1/ n y1/ n = ( xy )1/ n = n xy = n x n y

1/ n
x x1/ n n n
x
  = 1/ n = x / y = provided that y  0.
 y y n
y

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 19

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Example 23: The above laws are illustrated as follows:

1. x1/ 3 = 3 x

1 1 1
2. x −1/ 2 = 1/ 2
=2 = provided that x  0.
x x x

3. x 3 / 5 = (x1/ 5 ) =
3
( x ) = (x )
5
3 3 1/ 5
= 5 x3

4. x1/ 2 .x1/ 3 = 2 x .3 x = x (1/ 2 )+(1/ 3)

x1/ 4 4
x
5. = = x1/ 4−1/ 2 provided that x  0.
x1/ 2 2
x

6. ( x1/ 3 )1/ 4 = x1/12 = 12 x

7. x1/ 2 y1/ 2 = ( xy )1/ 2 = 2 xy = 2 x 2 y = x y

1/ 3
x x1/ 3 3 3
x
8.   = 1/ 3 = x / y = provided that y  0.
 y y 3
y

1.5 The XY Plane (or  2 , read as ``R TWO``)

1.5.1 Construction of the XY Plane

The real line allows us to move in one of only two directions. In order to provide more flexibility
in movement and representation of more than one variable, we introduce the XY plane. It is
composed of two real lines, one in the horizontal direction and one in the vertical direction. A
typical number in the horizontal direction is x, and the real line is called the X-axis. A typical
number in the horizontal direction is y, and the real line is called the Y-axis. The two axes
intersect at the point of origin, represented as O.
Ordered Pairs: Unlike the representation of a point in  as a single number, a point P in the
XY plane is represented as an ordered pair of the form (x,y), where x is listed before y. The
values x and y are called coordinates of point P. Coordinates of the point of origin O are the
ordered pair (0,0).
Quadrants: The XY plane is also referred to as the Cartesian coordinate system. It divides the
two-dimensional plane into four quadrants, labelled I, II, III, IV, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Ordered pairs (x,y) are represented as shown in Figure 1.5. In Figure 1.6, we show some points
represented in the XY plane.

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 20

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 Cartesian Coordinate System
Quadrants…

II I

III IV

Figure 1.4

Cartesian Coordinate System

y-axis

(x, y)

x-axis

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 21

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
1.5.2 Distance in  2

Suppose we have a right-angled triangle with hypotenuse length c, as shown in Figure 1.7:

Figure 1.7

Pythagoras' Theorem, gives us the length of the longest side (the hypotenuse) as:

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 or c = a 2 + b 2 (since c is a non-negative length).

Now, let P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ) be two points in the XY plane (see Figure 1.8). Distance d
between P and Q is given by the Pythagorean theorem:

d 2 = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 .

Since distance is a non-negative quantity (that is, d  0 ), we can express d as:

d = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 .

Figure 1.8

Example 24: Find the distance between (5,4) and (7, -8).

Solution: Let ( x1 , y1 ) = (5,4) and ( x2 , y2 ) = (7, -8). Then

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 22

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
d = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 = (7 − 5) 2 + (−8 − 4) 2 = 4 + 144 = 148.

1.5.3 Equation of the Circle

A circle is the set of points P(x,y) in the plane that are at an equidistance r from a given
point C(h,k).

Distance r is caller the radius of the circle, and point C(h,k) is the centre of the circle
(see Figure 1.9).

Figure 1.9

Equation of a circle of radius r and centre at (h,k) is an equation that describes points
P(x,y) on the circumference of the circle. According to the distance formula, equation of
this circle is given by:

( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = r 2 .

Example 25: Find the equation of the circle whose radius is 5 and centre at (3,-2).

Solution: (h,k) = (3,-2), and r = 5. Equation is ( x − 3) 2 + ( y + 2) 2 = 25.

A unit circle is a circle of radius 1. It has the equation ( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = 1 .

A unit circle with centre at (0,0) has the equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 .

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 23

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
1.6 Angles and Trigonometric Numbers

1.6.1 Angle (denoted by  )

Angles are geometric figures made from two rays having the same endpoint. The endpoint is called
the vertex and the rays are called the sides of the angle. The side being rotated is called the
terminal side and the other side is the initial side. In Figure 1, BC is the initial side and BA is the
terminal.

Figure 1

1.6.2 Angle Measures Angles are measured in degrees or in radians. The “degree” is the most
commonly used unit for measuring angles, but in many modern applications the radian measure
(rad) is used most often.

One degree, denoted by 1°, is 1/360 of a complete rotation counter-clockwise. Note that 1 rotation
= 360° and corresponds to 2 radians, where  is an irrational number that is the ratio of the
circumference to the diameter of any circle. Here are the first 30 digits of  to the right of the
decimal point:  = 3.141592653589793237462643383279… . Note that 1 radian is
approximately 57.293 degrees.

We can develop the following conversion Table for some of the most popular angles (Table
1 below):

Degrees Radians
360 2
180 
150 5 / 6
135 3 / 4
120 2 / 3
90  /2
60  /3
45  /4
30  /6
15  / 12

Table 1

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 24

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Converting Degrees to/from Radians:

Degrees Radians
The conversion of degrees to/from radians is simply a proportion problem: = .
180 

Radians
Given an angle in radians, we obtain the angle in degrees according to: Degrees = 180 .


Given an angle in degrees, we obtain the angle in radians according to:

Degrees
Radians =  .
180

1.6.3 Orientation (Positive and Negative Angles) and Types of Angles:

Angles are measured positive when they are rotated counter-clockwise and negative when rotated
clockwise. Angle  = −40  is obtained by a clockwise rotation of an initial ray.

We briefly classify angles according to their size over one revolution as:

Acute Angle 0    90 
Right Angle  = 90 
Obtuse Angle 90     180 
Straight Angle  = 180 
Reflex Angle 180     360 
Full Rotation Angle  = 360 

1.6.4 Multiple Angles…Same Property:

The initial side can be rotated several times before stopping at the terminal side. If we start at a
given angle, we get back to the same angle after 360 degrees. For instance, angle t = 30 degrees is
the same (has the same properties) as angle 30+360 or 30+720, …etc.

Accordingly, we can represent the initial and terminal rays as the radii of a unit circle (that is, or
radius r = 1), in the XY plane, centred at (0,0), with a point (x,y) situated at the end of the terminal
ray, rotating counter-clockwise to generate angle  as shown below in Figure 2.

If we take the X-axis to coincide with angles  = 0 and  = 2 = 360  , then:

 3
angles  = = 90  and  = − = −270  coincide with the positive Y-axis
2 2

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 25

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 3 
angles  = = 270  and  = − = −90  coincide with the negative Y-axis
2 2

angles  =  = 180  coincide with the negative X-axis.

Figure 2

1.6.5 Trigonometric Numbers:

If we generate an angle  , we can also generate an infinite number of positive and negative angles
that coincide with  by rotating (x,y) full revolutions around the circle. Each of these revolutions
is 360 degrees. Angle  and all other angles that coincide with it share the same properties that
we identify as trigonometric numbers of angle  , and we define (see Figure 3) as follows.

Suppose we ask: what is the relationship between (x,y) and  ?

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 26

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 Figure 3

We define x to be cosine of  and y to be sine of  , abbreviated as follows:

cos = x

sin  = y

The four other trigonometric numbers are tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant of  ,
defined as follows:

sin  y
Tangent of  : tan  = = .
cos x

1 cos x
Cotangent of  : cot = = = .
tan  sin  y

1 1
Secant of  : sec = = .
cos x

1 1
Cosecant of  : csc = = .
sin  y

Clearly, with the knowledge of the coordinates x and y, we can determine the above six
trigonometric numbers. At the outset, we can “read” the following trigonometric numbers from
Figure 2:

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 27

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
  cos sin  tan  cot sec csc
0 or 2 1 0 0 + 1 +
 / 2 or 0 1 + 0 + 1
− 3 / 2
 or −  -1 0 0 − -1 +
3 / 2 or 0 -1 − 0 + -1
− / 2

Table 3

Table 3 demonstrates that two angles within one revolution share the same trigonometric number.
This will be important when solving trigonometric equations later on in this chapter.

1.6.6 Trigonometric Numbers Using Coordinate Systems:

Let P = (x , y) be any point on the terminal side of  , and the distance r from the origin to point P
is: r = x 2 + y 2 (see Figure 4).

Figure 4

The trigonometric numbers are scaled with respect to r and take the form:

x y y
cos = sin  = tan  = ; x0
r r x

r r r
sec = ; x0 csc = ; y0 cot = ; y0
x y y

Note that some of the trigonometric numbers may be negative, due to their coordinates. Here is a
simple way of remembering where the trigonometric numbers are positive:

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 28

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
A: means that all trigonometric numbers are positive.
S: means that sine and cosecant are positive.
T: means that tangent and cotangent are positive.
C: means that cosine and secant are positive.

1.6.7 Trigonometric Numbers Using Pythagorean Triangle:

A Pythagorean triangle is a right-angled triangle, as shown. Pythagorean

Theorem asserts that the sum of squares of the legs = the square of the
hypotenuse.

Figure 5

Trigonometric numbers of the two acute angles in the triangle are defined as
follows.

Figure 6

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 29

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
1.6.8 Properties of Trigonometric Numbers:

Pythagorean Identities:

Since the equation of the unit circle that is centred at (0,0) is x 2 + y 2 = 1 , and we defined
x = cos and y = sin  , therefore:

cos2  + sin 2  = 1 , for any angle  . …(1)

We can solve (1) for cos2  and for sin 2  to get:

cos2  = 1 − sin 2  …(2)

sin 2  = 1 − cos2  …(3)

cos2  sin 2  1
Dividing both sides of (1) by cos  , we get
2
+ = , or
cos  cos  cos2 
2 2

1 + tan 2  = sec 2  . …(4)

cos2  sin 2  1
Dividing both sides of (1) by sin 2  , we get + = , or
sin  sin  sin 2 
2 2

1 + cot2  = csc2  . …(5)

Note that since on the unit circle, − 1  x  1 and − 1  y  1 , therefore:

− 1  cos  1 and − 1  sin   1 . …(6)

Example 26:

cos2 5 + sin 2 5 = 1

cos2 1729 + sin 2 1729 = 1

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 30

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
   
Example 27: Find cos , sin and tan .
4 4 4

Solution: Since the line y=x generates a 45 degree angle with the X-axis, therefore
 
cos = x = y = sin . Now, substitute these in (1) to get: x 2 + x 2 = 1 = y 2 + y 2 . Thus, for an
4 4
1   1 2
angle in the first quadrant, x = y = , or cos = sin = = .
2 4 4 2 2

 sin( / 4)
tan = = 1.
4 cos( / 4)

 
Example 28: Find sine and cosine of  = = 30  and  = = 60  .
6 3

Solution: These angles are illustrated in Figure 7, below.

Figure 7

1.6.9 Complementary Angles:


Two angles are said to be complementary if they add up to 90 degrees or .
2

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 31

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
For example, 30 and 60 degrees are complementary angles, 45 and 45 are complementary angles,

so are the angles  and −  .
2

Relationships between trigonometric numbers of complementary angles are:


cos = sin( −  ) …(7)
2


sin  = cos( −  ) …(8)
2


tan  = cot( −  ) …(9)
2

Example 29:

  3
cos = sin = .
6 3 2

  1
cos = sin = .
3 6 2

  1
cos = sin = .
4 4 2

1.6.10 Relationship between angles in the fourth quadrant and in first quadrant:

If angle  is in first quadrant, angle −  or 2 −  is in the fourth quadrant. Thus,

cos(− ) = cos(2 −  ) = cos ...(10)

sin( − ) = sin( 2 −  ) = − sin  ...(11)
tan( − ) = tan( 2 −  ) = − tan  ...(12)

Example 30:

3
cos(−30  ) = cos(330  ) = cos 30  =
2
 11  3
cos(− ) = cos( ) = cos =
6 6 6 2

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 32

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Example 31:

3
sin( −60  ) = sin( 300  ) = − sin 60  = −
2
 5  3
sin( − ) = sin( ) = − sin = −
3 3 3 2

Example 32:

1
tan( −45  ) = tan( 315  ) = − tan 45  = −
2
 7  1
tan( − ) = tan( ) = − tan = −
4 4 4 2

1.6.11 Supplementary Angles:

Two angles are said to be supplementary if they add up to 180 degrees or  .

For example, 30 and 150 degrees are supplementary angles,60 and 120 degrees are
supplementary angles, 45 and 135 are complementary angles, so are the angles  and  −  .

Relationships between trigonometric numbers of supplementary angles are:

sin( −  ) = sin  …(10)

cos( −  ) = − cos …(11)

tan( −  ) = − tan  …(12)

Example 33:

2  1
cos = − cos = −
3 3 2 .
1
cos(120 ) = − cos(60 ) = −
 

2  3
sin = sin =
3 3 2
3
sin(120  ) = sin( 60  ) =
2

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 33

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 2 
tan = − tan = − 3
3 3
tan(120 ) = − tan( 60  ) = − 3


Relationship between angles in the third quadrant and in first quadrant:

Angles in the third quadrants are of the form  +  or 180 +  .



Relationships between trigonometric numbers of angles in the third quadrants and trigonometric
numbers of  are:

sin( +  ) = − sin  …(13)

cos( +  ) = − cos …(14)

tan( +  ) = tan  …(15)

Example 34:

5  1
cos = − cos = −
4 4 2
.
1
cos(225 ) = − cos(45 ) = −
 

5  1
sin = − sin = −
4 4 2
1
sin( 225  ) = − sin( 45  ) = −
2

5 
tan = tan = −1
4 4
tan( 225 ) = tan( 45  ) = −1


MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 34

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 Figure 8

Figure 9

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 35

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 1. More Trigonometric Identities:

The Addition Formulas:

sin( a + b) = sin a. cosb + cos a. sin b

sin( a − b) = sin a. cosb − cos a. sin b

cos(a + b) = cos a. cosb − sin a. sin b

cos(a − b) = cos a. cosb + sin a. sin b

tan a + tan b
tan( a + b) =
1 − tan a. tan b

tan a − tan b
tan( a − b) =
1 + tan a. tan b

Double-Angle Formulas:

sin 2a = 2 sin a. cos a

cos 2a = cos2 a − sin 2 a

= 1 - 2sin2 a = 2cos2 a – 1

2 tan a
tan 2a =
1 − tan 2 a

Half-Angle Formulas:

a 1 − cos a
sin =
2 2

a 1 + cos a
cos =
2 2

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 36

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
1.7 Practice Problems
PROBLEM SET 1.1The Real Numbers

Q1: If possible simplify each of the following so that only a single interval is stated. If it is not
possible briefly explain why.

a) 𝑥 ∈ (−5,4) ∪ (3, ∞)
b) 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
c) 𝑥 ∈ (2,10] ∪ [0,8)
d) 𝑥 ∈ (−2,5] ∩ [5,10]
e) 𝑥 ∈ (−3,3) ∩ (3,6)
f) 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 0) ∩ (−1, ∞)

Q2: In each of the following cases, is the statement true (T) or False (F)
22
a) 𝜋 = 7
b) The length of the interval (2,15) is 13
c) |7 − 12| = 5
d) |𝑥 − 𝑥 2 | = |𝑥||𝑥 − 1|
0
e) =1
0

PROBLEM SET 1.2 Solving Equations

Q1: Solve for x

a) 6 − x = 1

b) 4 x − 3 = 2( x + 2) + 10

c) 5 − 6 x = 7

d) 3(2 x − 1) + 4 x = 6( x − 1) + 6

Q2: Solve for x

a) 2 3 x + 1 − 4 = 0.

b) 3 − 2 x = 5

c) 2− x = x

−1 1
d) =
2x 5

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 37

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Q3: Factor the given expression:

a) x 2 − 4 x + 3

b) x 2 + 2 x − 3

c) x 2 − 3 x + 2

d) x 2 − x − 2

e) 3 x 2 + 9 x + 6

f) x3 − x

Q4: Solve using the quadratic formula:

a) x 2 − 5 x + 2 = 0

b) 3 x 2 + x + 1 = 0

c) 3 − 5 x 2 + x = 0

d) x 2 + x + 1 = 0

e) x 2 + 4 x + 1 = 0

Q5: Solve for x

a) x 3 + 8 = 0

b) 27 x 3 − 64 = 0

1 3
c) x +1 = 0
8

d) 16 − x 4 = 0

e) x − x 3 = 0

f) 2 x 4 − 20 x 2 = 0

g) x 3 + 6 x 2 + 12 x + 8 = 0

h) x 3 − 6 x 2 + 12 x − 8 = 0 .

i)

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 38

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 PROBLEM SET 1.3 Inequalities

Q1: Solve for x

a) 3x + 4  10

1
b) − 3x  6
2

c) 6 +   3 − 2 x

d) − (1 − x)  2 x − 1

Q2: Solve for x

a) 3  5 x + 1  10

b) − 1  2 − x  3

c) 0  2 x  5

d) 0  3 − 5 x  7

Q3: Solve for x

a) 100 + x  41 − 6 x  121 + x

b) 2 + 1  5x − 1  2 x + 3

c) (2 x − 1) + 5  x − 3  5 + 2 x

3
d) x  2 − 3x  5 − 5 x
2

Q4: Solve for x

a) 3x − 10  8

b) 4 x  1

1
c) 4
2x

4
d) 5
3 − 4x

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 39

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Q5: Solve for x

a) ( x + 1)( x − 2)  0
b) ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x + 1)  0
c) x 2 − 2 x − 3  0
x ( x + 2)
d) 0
x−2
(1 − x)( x + 2)
e) 0
x( x + 1)
(1 − x)( x + 3)
f) 0
( x + 1)(2 − x)

Problem Set 1.4 Exponents and Radicals

Q1. In each of the following cases, is the statement true (T) or false(F)

a) 25 . 45 = 215
b) 23 . 53 = 1000
𝑥2
c) If 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 0 = 𝑥 2
1
d) If 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 6 = −𝑥 6
2 5
e) (6) = 3−5

Q2. In each of the following cases, is the statement true (T) or false(F)
3
a) √8 = 2
1 4 1
b) (𝑥 5 ) = 𝑥 20
1 1 1
c) 𝑥 3 𝑥 5 = 𝑥 15
1 1 9
d) 𝑥 4 𝑥 5 = 𝑥 20
5 5
4
e) ( √𝑥) = 𝑥 4

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 40

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
 PROBLEM SET 1.5 The XY Plane

Q1. P(1,6) and Q(-3,9) are points in ℛ 2 . What is the distance between the two points?

Q2. P(7,2), Q1(3,4), Q2(6,5) and Q3(7,-2) are points in ℛ 2 . Which of the three points Q1(3,4),
Q2(6,5) and Q3(7,-2) is closest to the point P(7,2)?

Q3. The following equation is the equation of a circle in the XY plane

(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = 36

a) What point in the XY plane is at the centre of the circle?

b) What is the radius of the circle?
c) The point P(0,-1) is on the circumference of the circle. True (T) or False (F)?

Q4. If a circle has a radius 𝑟 the area enclosed by the circle is 𝜋𝑟 2 and the circumference of the
circle is 2𝜋𝑟. A certain circle is described by the equation

(𝑥 + 13)2 = 169 − (𝑦 + 2)2

a) What is the area enclosed by the circle? (Express your answer as a multiple of 𝜋)
b) What is the circumference of the circle? (Express your answer as a multiple of 𝜋)
c) The point P(0,3) is on the circumference of the circle. True (T) or False (F)?

Q5. A circle of radius 4 and a circle of radius 2 are centred on the same point. The area between
the two circles is 3 times the area enclosed by the circle of radius 2. True or False? [Hint: Use the
area formula in Question 4).

PROBLEM SET 1.6 Angles and Trigonometric Numbers

Table 2

Q1.
a) Convert 60𝑜 to radians
b) Convert 395𝑜 to radians
c) Convert 𝜋/12 radians to degrees
d) Convert −12𝜋/15 radians to degrees

Q2. Find the six trigonometric numbers of the acute angles in a Pythagorean triangle with the
following measurements ( 𝑐 is the length of the hypotenuse):
a) a=3, b=4.
b) a=5, c=10.
c) b=2, c=6.
Q3. Find the sine, cosine and tangent of each of the following angles
a) 𝜃 = 135𝑜 = 3𝜋/4 (radians)
b) 𝜃 = 150𝑜 = 5𝜋/6 (radians)

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 41

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Q4. Find the sine, cosine and tangent of each of the following angles
a) 𝜃 = 210𝑜 = 7𝜋/6 (radians)
b) 𝜃 = 240𝑜 = 4𝜋/3 (radians)

Q5. Given,
3
cos(𝜃) = , 𝜃 ∈ (0, 𝜋/2)
5
Find:
a) sin (2𝜃)
b) cos (2𝜃)
c) sin (𝜃/2)
d) tan (𝜃/2)

Q6. Given that

𝜋 √3
cos ( ) =
3 2
use the double angle formula to find
a) cos (2𝜋/3)
b) sin (2𝜋/3)

Q7. Use the sum or difference formula to calculate

a) sin (𝜋/3 − 5𝜋/4)
b) cos (5𝜋/6 − 𝜋/4)
c) tan (𝜋/6 + 𝜋/4)

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 42

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell
Appendix 1A Alternate Interval Notation

In this course curved brackets, (), are used to denote open intervals and square brackets, [
], are used to denote closed intervals. In other courses and some textbooks, the < (less
than), ≤ (less than or equal to), > (greater than), and ≥ (greater than or equal to) signs are
used to indicate intervals. The following table shows the equivalent expressions using the
two types of notation

Bracket notation Alternate notation

𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑎<𝑥 <𝑏
𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑎≤𝑥 ≤𝑏
𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑎≤𝑥 <𝑏
𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑎<𝑥 ≤𝑏

MATH1001 Chapter 1: Essentials 43

© M. H. Hamdan and K. De’Bell