CHAPTER 2

FUNCTIONS

0. Introduction:

A major aspect of the study of science may be described as the study of the form of
dependence of one measured quantity on another measured quantity. The concept of
function is used in this context in a special way. For example, the word function may be
used as follows:

Light intensity is a function of depth below the surface in an ocean.

Light intensity is a function of distance from the light source.

The frequency of cricket chirps is a function of the ambient temperature.

The percentage of female turtles from a clutch of eggs is a function of the incubation

temperature.

Functions serve as mathematical models (simulations of reality) in science and

engineering. In this course, we will encounter various functions that arise in biomedical
and life science research.

Note that we do Calculus in the set of real numbers, ℜ, described in the following Venn
diagram:
 1. Relations and Functions:

Definition of a Relation

A relation is a set of ordered pairs of the form (x, y). The first component in the ordered
pairs (x-coordinate) is called the domain, and the second component (y-coordinate) is
called the range.

Example 1: The set of ordered pairs: {(2,1), (2,3), (4,-1), (0.5,3)} is a relation.

Example 2: The set of ordered pairs {(1,2), (3,5), (7,10)} is a relation. The domain of this
relation is the set of numbers {1, 3, 7}, and the range is the set of numbers {2, 5, 10}.

We can also represent a relation as an equation expressing y in terms of x.

Example 3: The equations y = 2 x 2 − 3 and y 2 = x represent relations.

Note that in Example 3, the relation y 2 = x renders two values of y for a given non-
negative value of x, namely, y =  x . For instance, if x=4 then y =  4 = 2 .

Definition of a Function

Let A and B be two sets of real numbers (as shown in Figure 2.1). Let x be a typical
element of A and y a typical element of B. We define a function f to be a rule that assigns
to each element x in A a single element y in B.

This definition implies that to each x we assign only one y. No value of x can be assigned
more than one y. This is what distinguishes a function from a relation. In other words, a
function is a relation where each member of the domain is reserved a single member of
the range. Note, however, that in both relations and functions, one y can be assigned to
more than one x.

Domain Range

1 -1

3 1

-4 -6

Figure 2.1
 2. Function Representation:

Here are four common ways to represent a function.

(1) A function can be represented as a set of ordered pairs of the form ( x, y) .

(2) A function can be represented as a table of values of x and the corresponding
values of y.
(3) A function can be represented graphically in the XY-plane by plotting the
values of y versus x.
(4) A function can be represented symbolically as an algebraic equation.

Here is an example of a function represented as a table of values.

Example 4: Data of amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide in parts per million (ppm) is
as follows:

Year (x) 1990 2000 2075 2175 2275

CO2 (ppm) (y) 353 375 590 1090 2000

Symbolically, we write y = f (x) , which is read as: “y equals f of x”, to signify that to
each x we assign a value y according to rule f.

Alternatively, this signifies that f maps x onto y, or that y is the image of x under rule f.

Note that the typical elements x and y of sets A and B, respectively, are variables: x is an
independent variable and y is a dependent variable.

Note also that the choice of names of the variables and the function is a matter of
convenience.

Example 5: Identify the independent and dependent variables, and the function, in the
following:

a) y = f(x)

x is independent, y is dependent

b) z=g(x)

x is independent, z is dependent
 Practice 1: Identify the independent and dependent variables, and the function, in the
following:

i) x=h(y)
ii) x=h(z)
iii) w=f(y)

3. Classification of Functions:

Rule f is usually given in the form of an algebraic expression, composed of variables x

and y, real numbers, and the algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, powers and roots. In addition, some functions are obtained through mathematical
definitions. This provides us with the following four groupings (classifications) of
functions: Polynomial Functions, Rational Functions, Algebraic Functions and
Transcendental Functions.

Polynomials:

Definition: A polynomial of degree n is an algebraic expression of the form:

y = f ( x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + ... + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0

where an  0 , and a0 , a1 , a2 ,..., an are real numbers. They are the coefficients of
1, x , x 2 , x 3 ,..., x n , respectively. The non-negative integer n is called the degree of the
polynomial. This polynomial is said to be in standard form since the terms are listed in
decreasing powers on the variable x.

The coefficient an  0 is called the leading coefficient. The term an x n is called the
leading term while a 0 is called the constant term.

Note that the constant term, a 0 , is a polynomial of degree zero. It is called the constant
polynomial f ( x) = a0 .

Example 6: The following are polynomials (since they take the general form, above):
a) f ( x) = 5
b) f ( x) = 0
c) f ( x) = −62
 d) f ( x) = −3.1
e) f ( x) = 2 x − 3
f) f ( x) = x
g) f ( x) = x 2 + x + 1
3
h) f ( x) = − x 3 + x − 10.5
2
i) f ( x) = 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + x10 .

Example 7: The following are not polynomials (since the power n on the variable x is not
a non-negative integer):
1
a) f ( x) = (note: this is x −1 )
x
b) f ( x) = x
c) f ( x) = 2 − x + x 3 − x
d) f ( x) = 1 + x −1 + x −2 .

1 9
Example 8: The polynomial 3x − 5 + 6 x 3 − x is not in standard form. Write the
2
polynomial in standard form; identify its degree; its leading term; its leading coefficient;
and its constant term.

Solution:
1 9
Standard form of the given polynomial is − x + 6 x 3 + 3x − 5.
2
The degree of the polynomial is 9.
1 9
The leading term of the polynomial is − x .
2
1
The leading coefficient is − .
2
The constant term is -5.

Rational Functions:

Definition: The quotient (ratio) of two polynomials is a rational function. It is expressed

h( x )
in the form y = f ( x) = , where h(x) and g(x) are both polynomials.
g ( x)

Example 9: The following are rational functions, since the numerator and denominator
are polynomials:
 1
a) f ( x) =
x
5
b) f ( x) = −
x2
x−5
c) f ( x) = 2
x +2
x10 − 5 x 3 + x 4
d) f ( x) = − 2
3x + 3x 6 − 1

Example 10: The following are not rational functions, since the numerator or denominator
is not a polynomial:

x
a) f ( x) =
x − 25 2

3x 5 − 1
b) f ( x) = 2 / 3 .
x + 6x

Algebraic Functions:
An algebraic function is any function that can be defined as the root or a fractional power
of a polynomial equation. Algebraic functions can be expressed using a finite number of
terms involving only the algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, powers and radicals (raising an expression to a fractional power).

Example 11: The following are algebraic functions:

a) f ( x) = x
b) f ( x) = 1 − x
1
c) f ( x) = + x3
x
x3/ 2
d) f ( x) = 2 / 3
x +1
2 4
1 1 3 1 1 1
e) f ( x) = + 2 + 4 =   +   + 3  .
x x x  x  x  x

The above examples are a type of explicit algebraic functions. These are equations
involving x and y with y = f(x) being single-valued (that is, for each x there is only one
value y). In implicit algebraic functions, on the other hand, solution to an equation
involving x and y results in at more than one value for y.
Example 12: The following are implicit algebraic functions:
a) y 2 = x . Solving for y gives y =  x .
b) x 2 + y 2 = r 2 . Solving for y gives y =  r 2 − x 2 .

Note: All polynomials are rational functions and all rational functions are algebraic
functions.

Transcendental Functions

A transcendental function is one that cannot constructed using algebraic

operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, powers, and root
extraction. Transcendental functions are usually defined. They include
exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions. In the next chapter, we will
study these three transcendental functions.

Practice 2: Classify the functions as polynomials, rational functions and algebraic

functions.:

a) y = f ( x) = 3x − 2
b) y = f ( x) = x 2 − 2 x
c) y = g (t ) = t 3 − 1
1
d) z = h( x) =
2x + 5
x− x
e) y = f ( x) = .
x + x2

4. Evaluation of Functions:

Given a function y = f (x) , the value of f when x = c is y = f (c) , obtained by replacing x

by c in the algebraic expression representing f.

Example 13: Let y = f ( x) = x 2 . Find f (3), f (−2), f (t ), f ( x + 1), f ( x 2 ).

Solution:

f (3) = (3) 2 = 9

f (−2) = (−2) 2 = 4
f (t ) = (t ) 2 = t 2

f ( x + 1) = ( x + 1) 2 = x 2 + 2 x + 1

f (x2 ) = (x2 )2 = x4 .

1
Example14: Let y = f ( x) = x and w = g ( x) = . Find, if possible,
x
f (4), f (−2), g (2), g (0).

Solution:

f (4) = 4 = 2.

f (−2) = − 2 , which is undefined in the set of real numbers.

1
g ( 2) = .
2

1
g ( 0) = , which is undefined in the set of real numbers.
0

Example 14, above, suggests that we need to specify the values of x that we can use in a
given function so that the function is defined. We thus define the domain of a function.

Example 15: Researchers have determined that the body mass of yearling bighorn sheep
on Ram mountain in Albert, Canada, can be estimated by

𝑀(𝑡) = 27.5 + 0.3𝑡 − 0.001𝑡 2 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 365.

where M(t) is the mass of the sheep (in kg) and t is the number of days since May 25 of
any given year. Find the body mass of a sheep on May 25, 10 days past May 25, and 100
days part May 25.

Solution:

Body mass on May 25 = M(0) = 27.5 kg.

Body mass 10 days past May 25 = 𝑀(10) = 27.5 + 0.3(10) − 0.001(10)2 = 27.5 + 3 −
0.1 = 30.4 𝑘𝑔.

Body mass 100 days past May 25 = 𝑀(100) = 27.5 + 0.3(100) − 0.001(100)2 =
27.5 + 30 − 10 = 57.5 𝑘𝑔.
 5. Domain and Range of a Function:

Domain of a Function:

Let y = f(x). Domain of f, denoted by D f , is the set of values that x can take. Note that
in our definition of function, set A is the domain of f.

Domain of a function is either the set of real numbers,  , or a subset of  . In order to

find the domain, we exclude the values of x that make f(x) undefined. We thus avoid
dividing by zero or taking the even root of a negative number.

Range of a Function:

Let y = f(x) be a function with domain D f . The range of f, denoted by R f , is the set of
values that y takes as x takes on all the values in D f . Note that in our definition of
function, set B is the range of f.

One way of finding the range is to solve the equation y = f(x) and express x in terms of y,
then find the restriction on y.

Example 16: Find the domain and range of y = f ( x) = x 2 .

Solution: Domain of f is the set of real numbers.

To find the range, solve for x in terms of y to get: x =  y . Restriction on y is that it

cannot be negative. Thus, range of f is y  0.

Domain and Range of a Polynomial:

Domain of any polynomial is the set of real numbers. However, the range of a polynomial
depends on the degree of the polynomial and the terms it involves. For instance, the range
of a linear polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 is the set of real numbers, while the range of a
quadratic polynomial written as: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is the set of values 𝑦 ≥ 0.

Domain and Range of a Rational Function:

h( x )
Domain: Since h(x) and g(x) in the rational function f ( x ) = are both polynomials,
g ( x)
their domains are the set of real numbers. Since division by zero is not allowed, therefore
the domain of a rational function is the set of real numbers except where the denominator
is zero.
 h( x )
Range: One way of finding the range of the rational function y = is to solve it for x
g ( x)
in terms of y and then to exclude the restrictions on y from the set of real numbers.

Example 17: Find the domain of the given rational function:

x−5
a) f ( x) = .
x2 + 2
x+5
b) f ( x) = 2 .
x − 16
Solution:
a) Since the denominator is never zero, the domain is the set of real numbers.
b) The denominator is zero when x 2 − 16 = 0 , or x = 4. The domain therefore is the
set of real numbers except x = 4.

Example 18: Find the range of the rational function:

1
a) f ( x) =
x
5
b) f ( x) = − 2
x
Solution:
1 1
a) y =  x = . Clearly, we must avoid y = 0. Range of f(x) is the set of real
x y
numbers except zero.
5 5 −5 −5 −5
b) y = − 2  x 2 = −  x =  . We must have: y  0 and  0. Since
x y y y y
−5
is never zero, we must have  0 . This is guaranteed by choosing y < 0. Range
y
of the function is therefore the set of values y < 0.

Example 19: Find the domain of the given function:

a) f ( x) = 3x − 4; x >7.

Here, the domain is explicitly given. We say the domain of f is the set of real
numbers greater than 7, or D f = {x > 7}.

b) f ( x) = 3x − x 3 + 1; x  [0,2].
 Here, the domain is explicitly given. We say the domain of f is the set of real
numbers from 0 to 2, or D f : x  [0,2].

1
c) f ( x) = .
x

Since we cannot divide by zero, we must avoid x = 0. We thus say: D f : x  0. We

understand that x can be any real number except 0.

4− x
d) f ( x) = .
3x + 1

1
Since we cannot divide by zero, we must avoid 3x+1 = 0, or avoid x = − . We
3
1
thus say: D f : x  − .
3

x
e) f ( x) = .
x +9
2

Although division is involved in this function, the denominator is never zero, and
we do not have any restriction on x. Hence, D f =  .

x
f) f ( x) = .
x −9
2

Since we cannot divide by zero, we must avoid x 2 − 9 = 0 , or x = 3. Hence, D f :

x = 3.

1
g) f ( x) = .
2x − x − 4
2

Since we cannot divide by zero, we must avoid 2 x 2 − x − 4 = 0 . Solving using the

− (−1)  (−1) 2 − 4(2)( −4) 1  33
quadratic formula, we get: x = = . Thus, D f :
2(2) 4
1  33
x .
4

h) f ( x) = x .
 Since we cannot take the square root of a negative number, x must be nonnegative.
Thus, D f : x  0.

i) f ( x) = − x .

Since we cannot take the square root of a negative number, -x must be nonnegative.
Now, if − x  0 then x  0. Thus, D f : x  0.

j) f ( x) = 3 x + 4 .

Since we cannot take the square root of a negative number, we must have
4 4
3x + 4  0 , or x  − . Thus, D f : x  − .
3 3

k) f ( x) = 4 − 8x .

Since we cannot take the square root of a negative number, we must have
1 1
4 − 8x  0 , or x  . Thus, D f : x  .
2 2

1
l) f ( x) = .
3x − 6

Since we cannot take the square root of a negative number, we must have
3x − 6  0 , or x  2 . In addition, since we cannot divide by zero, we must avoid
3x − 6 = 0 , or 3x-6 = 0, or x = 2. We thus have: D f : x >2.

m) f ( x) = (5 x − 1)(1 − x) .

We must have: (5x − 1)(1 − x)  0.

Sign of (5x − 1)(1 − x)

-ve +ve -ve

-------.--------.-------

1/5 1

1
Df:  x  1.
5
  6; x  3
n) f ( x) = 
4 x − 1; x  3.

Here, f(x) is defined for x > 3 and for x < 3, but f(3) is undefined. Thus, D f : x  3
.

x
Practice 3: Find the domain and range of y = f ( x) = .
x−5

Example 20: Find the domain and range of the given polynomial:
a) y = 3x + 10
b) y = 2( x − 2) 2 − 1
c) y = −5( x + 2) 2 − 1

Solution:
a) Domain is the set of real numbers. Range is the set of real numbers.
b) Domain is the set of real numbers. Range is the set of numbers y  −1 .
c) Domain is the set of real numbers. Range is the set of numbers y  −1 .

6. Graphs of Functions:

The graph of a function is the set of ordered pairs (x,y) in the XY plane, where x is in
the domain of the function and y is in the range of the function, calculated from y = f(x).

One way to graph a function is to evaluate f at various points x in its domain and to
determine (if possible) the intercepts (that is, where the function intersects the X-axis and
Y-axis). It also helps to know if the function is odd or even, defined as follows.

Odd and Even Functions:

A function y = f(x) is said to be even if f(-x) = f(x). Even functions are symmetric (has a
mirror image) about the y-axis.

A function y = f(x) is odd if f(-x) = -f(x). Odd functions are symmetric about the point
of origin (0,0).

Example 21: Decide if the given function is off, even or neither.

i) f ( x) = x 2
ii) g ( x) = x 3
iii) h( x ) = x 2 + x 3

Solution:
 i) Since f (− x) = (− x) 2 = x 2 = f ( x) , the function f is even. It symmetric about
Y-axis.
ii) Since g (− x) = (− x) 3 = − x 3 = − g ( x) , the function g is odd. It is symmetric
about the point of origin (0,0).
iii) Since h(− x) = (− x) 2 + (− x) 3 = x 2 − x 3  h( x) or - h(x) , the function f is neither
odd nor even. It is non-symmetric.

Example 22: Graph the function f(x) = | x |, where the absolute value function is
defined as:

𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0

Solution:

Domain of this function is the set of real numbers.

Since f(-x) = | -x | = | x | = f(x), the function is even. Hence, it is symmetric about the Y-
axis.

Intercepts (where the function crosses the coordinate axes):

x-intercept: f(0) = | 0 | = 0.

y-intercept: f(x) = 0 at x = 0.

The intercepts are both at the origin.

Some ordered pairs are:

x f ( x) = x
1 1
2 2
2.5 2.5
10 10
Graph therefore is:

Figure 2.2

Some Frequently Encountered Graphs:

Graphs of the following functions are shown below. They are frequently encountered and
used in the transformation of graphs, discussed next.

y = f ( x) = x

y = f ( x) = x 2

y = f ( x) = x 3

y = f ( x) = x

y = f ( x) = 3 x

1
y = f ( x) =
x.
y = f ( x) = x

y = f ( x) = x

1
y = f ( x) =
x

y = f ( x) = x 2
 y = f ( x) = 3 x

y = f ( x) = x 3

Vertical Line Test:

Given a graph, it can be determined if it is a function or a relation.

In order for the graph to be a function, the vertical line must only intersect the graph at
one and only one point. The vertical line test is illustrated in Figure 2.3.

Function Not a Function

It is crossed
more than
once.

Figure 2.3
Increase and Decrease of Functions

Let I be an interval of the real line that contains points a and b, and let f be a function

defined on I. Then:

f(x) is said to be increasing (strictly) on I if 𝑓(𝑏) > 𝑓(𝑎) whenever 𝑏 > 𝑎.

f(x) is said to be decreasing (strictly) on I if 𝑓(𝑏) < 𝑓(𝑎) whenever 𝑏 > 𝑎.

Example 23: The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is an increasing function on the interval [0, ∞) since
on this interval 𝑏 2 > 𝑎2 whenever 𝑏 > 𝑎.

Horizontal Line Test:

If the vertical line test holds, and any horizontal line also intersects the graph of a function
at exactly one point then the function is said to be one-to-one (or 1-1).

The horizontal and vertical line tests imply that for every x there is only one y and for every
y there is only one x. A condition for this to occur is that the function is either always
increasing or always decreasing.

Example24: The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is one-to-one on [0,+ ) , since it is increasing on

this interval. It is also one-to-one on (−,0] since it is decreasing there. Note that it is NOT
one-to-one on (−∞, +∞).

7. Operations with Functions:

Given two or more functions, we can add them, subtract one function from another,
multiply one function by another, and divide one function by another. Furthermore, we can
multiply a function by a scalar (number), raise a function to a power or find its radical
(root). We define these operations as follows.

Let f and g be two functions, k a real scalar (number) and n an integer. Then:

( f + g )( x) = f ( x) + g ( x)

( f − g )( x) = f ( x) − g ( x)

( fg )( x) = f ( x).g ( x)
 f f ( x)
( )( x) =
g g ( x)

(kf )( x) = kf ( x)

( f n )( x) = [ f ( x)] n

( f 1 / n )( x) = (n f )( x) = [ f ( x)]1 / n = n f ( x) .

Example 25: Let f ( x) = 3x − 1 and g ( x) = x 2 − 2 x − 3.

Find (𝑓 + 𝑔)(2), (𝑓𝑔)(1), (𝑓 − 𝑔)(0), (𝑓/𝑔)(0), ( f + g )( x) , ( f − g )( x) , ( fg )( x) ,

( f / g )( x) .

Solution:

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(2) = 𝑓(2) + 𝑔(2) = (3(2) − 1) + (22 − 2(2) − 3) = 5(−3) = −15.

(𝑓𝑔)(1) = 𝑓(1). 𝑔(1) = (3(1) − 1)(12 − 2(1) − 3) = 2(−4) = −8.

(𝑓 − 𝑔)(0) = 𝑓(0) − 𝑔(0) = (−1) − (−3) = 2.

𝑓(0) 1 1
(𝑓/𝑔)(0) = =− = .
𝑔(0) −3 3

(f + g )( x ) = 3x − 1 + x 2 − 2 x − 3
= x2 + x − 4
(f − g )( x ) = 3x − 1 − ( x 2 − 2 x − 3)
= − x2 + 5x + 2
( fg )( x ) = ( 3x − 1) ( x 2 − 2 x − 3)
= 3x3 − 7 x 2 − 7 x + 3
 f  3x − 1
  ( x) = 2
g x − 2x − 3
 Practice 4: Find √𝑓(𝑥) and (𝑔(𝑥))2 for the functions in Example 25.

8. Transformation of Graphs:
With the knowledge of the graph of y = f(x), we can generate the following graphs by the
indicated transformation:

Graph Transformation
f(x)+c Upward shift by c units if c > 0

Downward shift if c < 0

f(x+c) Left shift if c > 0

Right shift if c < 0

kf(x) Magnification if k > 1

Attenuation if 0 < k < 1

-f(x) Reflection about the X-axis

Example 26: With your knowledge of the graph of f ( x) = x 3 , graph 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)3 .

Figure 2.4
 Practice 5: With your knowledge of the graph of f ( x) = x 3 , graph y = 2 − 3( x − 1) 3 .

Completion of Square on a Quadratic Function:

The quadratic function y = f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c can always be written in completed

b b2
squares form as a( x − h) 2 + k , where h = − and k = f (h) = c − .
2a 4a

The graph of this function is a parabola that opens up if a > 0, and opens down if a < 0.
The point (h,k) is called the vertex.

The vertex is either a maximum point (if a < 0), or a minimum (if a < 0).

Domain of a quadratic function is the set of real numbers, ℜ (or a subset of ℜ in some
applications).

Range of a quadratic function is 𝑦 ≥ 𝑘 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ≤ 𝑘 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0.

Example 26: Complete the square on y = 3x 2 − 4 x + 1 and find the vertex. Classify the
vertex as a maximum or a minimum. Find domain and range of this function.

Solution:

Compare y = 3x 2 − 4 x + 1 with 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 to get: a=3, b=-4, c=1.

𝑏 (−4) 2 𝑏2 (−4)2 1
Vertex is at (h,k), where ℎ = − 2𝑎 = − 2(3) = 3. 𝑘 = 𝑐 − (4𝑎) = 1 − ( 4(3) ) = − 3.

2 1
Vertex is at (h,k) = (3 , − 3). Since a>0, vertex is a minimum point.

2 1
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 = 3(𝑥 − 3)2 − 3.

Domain of the given function is the set of real numbers.

1
Range of the function is 𝑦 ≥ − 3.

Practice 6: Blood flow to the fetal spleen is of research interest because several
diseases are associated with increased resistance in the splenic artery (the artery that
goes to the spleen). Researchers have found that the index of splenic artery resistance
in the fetus can be described by the function
 𝑦 = 0.057𝑥 − 0.001𝑥 2

where x is the number of weeks of gestation.

1. At how many weeks is the splenic artery resistance a maximum?

2. What is the maximum splenic artery resistance?

3 At how many weeks is the splenic artery resistance equal to 0, according to this
formula? Sketch the graph of the given function.

9. Composite of Functions:

We define the composition of two functions f and g as:

( f  g )( x) = f ( g ( x)).

The domain of f o g is such that x is in the domain of g and that g(x) is the domain of f.
This can be guaranteed by taking the domain of the composition as what is in common
between domain of f and domain of g.

Example 27: Let f(x) = x 2 + 1 and g(x) = 3x − 1.

Find: (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥), (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥), (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓)(3).

Solution:

( f  g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) = f (3x − 1) = (3x − 1) 2 + 1 = 9 x 2 − 6 x + 2.

( g  f )( x) = g ( f ( x)) = g ( x 2 + 1) = 3( x 2 + 1) − 1 = 3x 2 + 2.

( f  f )(3) = f ( f (3)) = f (32 + 1) = f (10) = 10 2 + 1 = 101.

We note from the above example that ( f  g )( x) is not necessarily equal to ( g  f )( x).
However, there are cases in which they are equal, as discussed in Inverse Functions,
below.
 1
Example 28: Let 𝑃(𝑇) = 10 𝑇(𝑡) be the population of squirrels per square mile in a forest
in terms of the number of trees per square mile, T, and assume the population of trees per
square mile is related to the age of the forest by T(t) = 10,000 + t − 2t 2, where t is years
beginning in 1990 (that is, t ≥ 0). According to the model, what was the population of
squirrels in 2000?

Solution:
1 𝑡 1
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑃(𝑇(𝑡)) = 𝑃(10,000 + t − 2t 2 ) = 10 (10,000 + t − 2t 2 ) = 1000 + 10 − 5 𝑡 2 .

In the year 2000, 𝑡 = 2000 − 1990 = 10.

10 1
𝑃(10) = 1000 + 10 − 5 (10)2 = 1001 − 50 = 951 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑠.

10. Inverse Functions:

If ( f  g )( x) = ( g  f )( x) = x then f(x) and g(x) are said to be inverses of each other.

x+2
Example 29: The functions f ( x) = 3x − 2 and g ( x) = are inverses of each other
3
since ( f  g )( x) = ( g  f )( x) = x.

−1
Notation and Properties: The inverse function of f(x) is denoted by f ( x) and satisfies
the following properties:

−1 −1
(f  f )( x) = f ( f ( x)) = x.

−1 −1
(f  f )( x) = f ( f ( x)) = x.

−1
[f ( x)] −1 = f ( x).

−1
f ( x) exists if f(x) is one-to-one.

−1
Domain of f(x) = Range of f ( x) .

−1
Range of f(x) = Domain of f ( x) .

−1
If (a,b) is a point on the graph of f(x) then (b,a) is a point of the graph of f ( x) .
 −1
Graphs of f(x) and f ( x) are symmetric about the line y = x. [See Figure below].

Figure 2.5

How to Find the Inverse of f(x):

−1
We can follow the following three step process to find f ( x) if y = f(x) is one-to one:

Step 1: Interchange x and y in y = f(x), and write x = f(y).

Step 2: Solve for the “new” y in x = f(y).

−1
Step 3: Call the solution in Step 2 is f ( x) .

−1
Example 30: Find f ( x) if y = f ( x) = x 2 for x > 0.

Solution: f ( x) = x 2 is one-to-one for x > 0 since it is always increasing there.

Step 1: Interchange x and y and write x = y 2 .

Step 2: Solve for y to get: y = + x for x > 0.

−1
Step 3: Call the solution f ( x) . Thus, f −1 ( x) = x .
Straight Lines in the Plane

A straight line joining the points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥1 , 𝑦2 ) in the XY [Link] the trace of a
point (𝑥, 𝑦) travelling in the same direction from one of the given points to the other.

Slope of a Line:

Figure 2.6

If points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥1 , 𝑦2 ) are different ( x1  x2 and y1  y2 ) then the slope, m,
(inclination to the horizontal) of the line between them is defined as the ratio of the change
in y to the change in x, namely:

y y2 − y1
m= = .
x x2 − x1
Interpretation of the Slope of a Line:

The slope of a line is the amount of change in y corresponding to a unit change in x.

Example 31: Find and interpret the slope m of the line between A(-3,1) and B(4,6).

Solution: Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−3,1) and ( x2 , y2 ) = (4,6). (See Figure 1.7 below).

y y2 − y1 6 −1 5
m= = = = . This means: if x increases by 1 unit, y increases
x x2 − x1 4 − (−3) 7
5
by of a unit.
7

Figure 2.7

Equation of a Straight Line:

Equation of a straight line expresses the relationship between x and y for any point
(x,y) on the line. We can determine this equation if we know two points on the
line, or if we know a point on the line and the slope of the line.

Two-Point Form of the Equation:

Setting the slope of the segment PP1 equal to the slope of the line, we get:
y − y1 y2 − y1
= = m.
x − x1 x2 − x1

Example 32: Find the equation of the line passing through (1,2) and (7,4).

y − y1 y2 − y1 y−2 4−2 1
Solution: =  = = .
x − x1 x2 − x1 x −1 7 −1 3

Point-Slope Form of the Equation:

y − y1 y2 − y1
From = = m , we obtain: y − y1 = m( x − x1 ).
x − x1 x2 − x1

Example 33: Find the equation of the line passing through (1,2) at a slope of -5.

Solution: y − y1 = m( x − x1 )  y − 2 = −5( x − 1).

Slope-Intercept Form of the Equation:

From y − y1 = m( x − x1 ), we obtain y = mx + ( y1 − mx1 ) = mx + c , where

c = y1 − mx1 is the y-intercept of the line (that is, where the line crosses the Y-axis,
or the value of y when x = 0).

Example 34: Express the equation of the line passing through (1,2) at a slope of -
5 in slope-intercept form.

Solution: m = -5. c = y1 − mx1 = 2 − (−5)(1) = 7. Thus, y = mx + c = −5x + 7.

Example 35: Find the x-intercept and the y-intercept of the line y=4x+9.

Solution: x-intercept is where the line crosses the X-axis. Set y = 0 to get 4x+9=0
or x = -9/4. Thus, (-9/4, 0) is the x-intercept.

y-intercept is where the line crosses the Y-axis. Set x = 0 to get y=9. Thus, (0, 9)
is the y-intercept.

General Equation of a Straight Line:

y − y1 y2 − y1
The equation = can be written as
x − x1 x2 − x1
( x2 − x1 ) y − ( y2 − y1 ) x − ( x2 − x1 ) y1 + ( y2 − y1 ) x1 = 0. This is of the general form
Ax + By + C = 0 , where
B = ( x2 − x1 ); A = −( y2 − y1 ); C = −( x2 − x1 ) y1 + ( y2 − y1 ) x1.
Example 36: A straight line has the general equation 7x-3y+2=0. Find its slope
and y-intercept.

7 2
Solution: Solving for y, we get: y = x + . Thus, m = 7/3 and c = 2/3.
3 3

Horizontal and Vertical Lines:

If y1 = y2 = b , the straight line is said to be horizontal. Its slope is zero, and its
equation is given by y = b. This equation means that for all values of x, the value
of y is b.

If x1 = x2 = a , the straight line is said to be vertical. Its slope is +  or −  (or

undefined), and its equation is given by x = a. This equation means that for all
values of y, the value of x is a.

Example 37: Find the equation of the vertical line and of the horizontal line that
pass through (3,-5).

Solution: Horizontal line equation: y = -5. Vertical line equation: x = 3.

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines:

The two non-vertical straight lines y = m1 x + c1 and y = m2 x + c2 are said to be

parallel if and only if their slopes are equal ( m1 = m2 ). The lines are perpendicular
−1
if and only if their slopes are negative reciprocal of each other ( m1 = , or
m2
−1
m2 = or m1m2 = −1 ).
m1

Example 38: Find the equation of the line through (1,-5) that is parallel to the line
y = 3x − 1 .

Solution: Slope of y = 3x − 1 is m=3. Slope of the required line is therefore m = 3.

Using y − y1 = m( x − x1 ), where ( x1 , y1 ) = (1,−5) , we get y + 5 = 3( x − 1) or

y = 3x − 8.

Intersection of Straight Lines:

Two non-parallel straight lines intersect at exactly one point.

 If the two lines are parallel, they are either non-intersecting or they intersect at an
infinite number of points.

At a point of intersection, the y-values and x-values are the same.

Example 39: Decide if the lines y = 3x-2 and y = 4x+1 intersect. If so, find their
points of intersection.

Solution: Since the slopes of the lines are not equal, the lines intersect at exactly
one point. Setting y = y, we get: 3x-2 = 4x+1, or x = -3. We can then obtain y from
either equation as: y = 3(-3)-2 = -8. The two lines intersect at (-3, -8).

Distance between Two Points on a Straight Line:

Since distance is a non-negative quantity (that is, d  0 ), we can express d as:

d = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 .

Example 40: Find the distance between (5,4) and (7, -8).

Solution: Let ( x1 , y1 ) = (5,4) and ( x2 , y2 ) = (7, -8). Then

d = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 = (7 − 5) 2 + (−8 − 4) 2 = 4 + 144 = 148 .

Practice 7: A study of HIV patients who were infected by intravenous drug use found
that 17% of the patients had AIDS after 4 years, and 33% had developed the disease
after 7 years.

a) What is the straight line relationship between the time interval and the
percentage of patients with AIDS?
b) Use part (a) to predict the number of years before half of these patients will
have AIDS.
 Problem Set 1

Q1. Let f ( x) = 4 x 2 + 1; g ( x) = x + 2; H (t ) = t − 2 .

a) Find domain and range of each function.

b) Decide whether f(x) is odd, even or neither.
c) Decide whether g(x) is increasing, decreasing or both. Does g −1 ( x) exist? If so,
find it.
d) Evaluate:

i) f(2)+g(-1)-3H(5)
ii) [f(x+h)-f(x)]/h
iii) g(2a-1)-H(a+3)
iv) ( f  g )( x )
v) ( g  g )( x)
vi) ( g  h)( 2)

Q2. Find the domain of the given function:

f ( x) = 2 − x
1
g ( x) =
2− x
h( x ) = 2 − x
1
w( x) =
2− x
x−2
k ( x) = 2
x − 5x + 6
r ( x) = x(2 − x)
x
z ( x) =
x −1

Q3. Find the inverse of the given function, if it exists. Find also the domain and range of
each function and its inverse, and graph the function and its inverse.
 3
f ( x) =
x−2
g ( x) = 2 x 2 + 5
h ( x ) = 6 x − 2.

Q4. Complete the square and sketch the function. Identify the vertex as a maximum point
or a minimum point.

f ( x) = 2 x 2 − 5 x + 7
g ( x) = 3x − 6 x 2

Q5: Consider the squirrel population model of Example 28, namely:

𝑡 1
𝑃(𝑡) = 1000 + 10 − 5 𝑡 2 , where 𝑡 ≥ 0 represents time in years since 1990.

Write the model in completed squares form.

What is maximum number of squirrels and when does it occur?

What was the initial population in 1990 (that is, P(0))?

When will the population become zero?

Q6:

a) Find the equation of the line through (5,5) and (7,-7).

b) Find the equation of the line passing through (-3,-2) at a slope 4.
c) Decide if the lines and are parallel, perpendicular or neither: 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 7 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
3
𝑥 + 1.
4
d) Find the equation of the line that passes through (3,4) and is perpendicular to 4x+y- 9=0.
e) Find the equation of the line that passes through (1,2) and is parallel to 4x+y- 9=0.
f) Sketch the lines y = x and y = 5x.
g) Find the equations of the vertical and horizontal lines through (-3, -5.5).
h) Sketch the line x-5y+8=0.
i) Find the x-intercept and y-intercept of the line 4x-3y=5 and write it in standard form (i.e.
slope-intercept form).
j) Decide if the lines y = 3x-2 and y = 3x+1 intersect. If so, find their points of intersection.
k) Find the infinite number of points of intersection of the parallel lines: y = 3x-2 and 2y -
6x+4=0.

Q7: Assume that the demand for nurses in Canada in 2020 was 3000 nurses and the demand
in 2024 is 7000 nurses. If the demand for nurses is linear, what was the demand in 2021
and in 2023?
Q8: The Beverton-Holt model relates the number of salmon in a population this year, 𝑃1 ,
to the number of salmon that were present last year , 𝑃0 , according to the relationship

𝑘 𝑃0
𝑃1 = 1+𝑘1 where 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 > 0.
2 𝑝0

Sketch 𝑝1 as a function of 𝑝0 for 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 1.

Is there a population level 𝑝0 that would be exactly the same from one year to the next?
Are there any restrictions on 𝑘1 𝑜𝑟 𝑘2 for this kind of static (“steady state”) population to
be possible?