CHAPTER VII

EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS

7.1. Critical Numbers and Critical Points of Functions:

Definition:

Let y = f (x) be a function with domain D f .

A number x = c is said to be a critical number of f(x) if:
i) c is in the domain D f
ii) f (c) = 0 or is undefined.

If x = c is a critical number then the point ( x, y) = (c, f (c)) is a critical point of y = f (x) .

Note that critical points are points at which the tangent line has a zero slope (horizontal tangent
line) or an undefined slope (either a vertical tangent line or a non-unique tangent line, such as at
a knife-edge).

Example 1:
Find, if any, critical numbers and critical points of f ( x) = 3x 2 − 12 x + 10.

Solution:

Domain of f(x) is D f =  (since f(x) is a polynomial).

f ( x) = 6 x − 12.
f ( x) = 0  6 x − 12 = 0  x = 2.

There are no values of x at which f (x) is undefined. Therefore, the only possible critical
number is x = 2.
Since x = 2 is in D f , therefore it is a critical number.

Now, f (2) = 3(2) 2 − 12(2) + 10 = −2.

Critical point is (2, f (2)) = (2,−2).

Example 2:
Find, if any, critical numbers and critical points of f ( x) = 2 x − 4.
Solution:

For domain of f(x), we must have 2x − 4  0 or x  2. Thus, D f is the set of real numbers that
are in the interval [2,+).

1
f ( x) = .
2x − 4
f (x) is never zero (hence no horizontal tangent lines), but is undefined when x = 2.

Since x = 2 is in D f , it is a critical number.

The point ( x, y ) = (2, f (2)) = (2, 2(2) − 4 ) = (2,0) is a critical point of the function.

Example 3:

Find, if any, critical numbers and critical points of f ( x) = sin( 2 x).

Solution:

Df =  .
f ( x) = 2 cos(2 x).
 3  3
f ( x) = 0  2 cos(2 x) = 0  cos(2 x) = 0  2 x =  , ,....or x =  , ,.... These are
2 2 4 4
critical numbers since they are in D f .
     
Critical points are: ( , sin 2( )); (− , sin 2(− ));... = ( ,1); (− ,−1);....
4 4 4 4 4 4

NOTE 1: Existence of critical points with horizontal tangent lines is guaranteed in some
functions that satisfy certain conditions, as given in the following theorem.

Rolle’s Theorem:

If f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open interval (a,b), with
f (a) = f (b) , then there exists at least one number c in (a,b) such that f (c) = 0.

Example 4:

Apply Rolle’s Theorem to the function f ( x) = sin( 2 x −  ) on the interval [0,2 ] .

Solution:

f ( x) = sin( 2 x −  ) is continuous on (−,+) , hence continuous on the interval [0,2 ] .

It is also differentiable on (−,+) , hence differentiable on the interval (0,2 ) , with
f ( x) = 2 cos(2 x −  ) .

Furthermore, f (0) = sin( 2(0) −  ) = sin( − ) = 0 and f (2 ) = sin( 2(2 ) −  ) = sin(3 ) = 0.
Therefore, conditions of Rolle’s Theorem are met and we can find a number c  (0,2 ) , with
f (c) = 2 cos(2c −  ) = 0.

 3 3 5
Now, cos(2c −  ) = 0  2c −  = ; or : . Thus, c = ; or : .
2 2 4 4

Example 5:

Apply Rolle’s Theorem to the function f ( x) = 3x 2 + 4 on the interval [−2,2] .

Solution:
f ( x) = 3x 2 + 4 is continuous on (−,+) , since it is a polynomial, and therefore continuous on
the interval [−2,2] . It is also differentiable on (−,+) , hence differentiable on (−2,2) , with
f ( x) = 6 x . Furthermore, f (−2) = 3(−2) 2 + 4 = 16 = f (2). All three conditions of Rolle’s
Theorem apply. Therefore, there exists at least one number c  (−2,2) such that f (c) = 0.
Now, f (c) = 0  6c = 0  c = 0.

NOTE 2: Rolle’s Theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem (MVT) that has many
consequences in Calculus, and guarantees that for differentiable functions we can always find a
point at which the slope of the tangent line is the same as the slope of the secant line.

Mean Value Theorem: MVT

If f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open interval (a,b), then
f (b) − f (a)
there exists at least one number c in (a,b) such that f (c) = .
b−a

Note that if we have the further condition that f (a) = f (b) , we recover Rolle’s Theorem.

Example 6:

Apply the Mean Value Theorem to the function f ( x) = 3x 2 + 4 on the interval [0,2] .
Solution:

f ( x) = 3x 2 + 4 is continuous on (−,+) , since it is a polynomial, and therefore continuous on

the interval [0,2] . It is also differentiable on (−,+) , hence differentiable on (0,2) , with
f ( x) = 6 x . Furthermore, f (0) = 3(0)2 + 4 = 4 , and f (2) = 3(2) 2 + 4 = 16 .

f (2) − f (0) 16 − 4
By MVT, f (c) = 6c = = = 6. Thus, c = 1.
2−0 2
This means, at c=1 in (0,2), slope of the tangent line equals slope of the secant line.

7.2. Intervals of Increase or Decrease of Functions:

Recall that we defined strictly increasing and strictly decreasing functions as follows:

Let I be an interval of the real line that contains points x1 and x2 , and let f be a function defined
on I. Then:

f(x) is said to be increasing on I if f ( x2 )  f ( x1 ) whenever x2  x1

f(x) is said to be decreasing on I if f ( x2 )  f ( x1 ) whenever x2  x1 .

Equivalently,

f(x) is said to be increasing on I if f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )  0 whenever x2 − x1  0 , or

f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )
 0 , and
x2 − x1

f(x) is said to be decreasing on I if f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )  0 whenever x2 − x1  0 , or

f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )
 0.
x2 − x1

Recall also that we defined the derivative of a function f(x) as:

f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 ) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ( x1 ) = lim , or as f ( x) = lim .
x 2 → x1 x2 − x1 h →0 h
 f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 ) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
Now, if  0 then f ( x1 )  0 (equivalently, if  0 then f (x) >0)
x2 − x1 h
and f(x) is increasing on interval I).

f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 ) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
Similarly, if  0 then f ( x1 )  0 (equivalently, if  0 then
x2 − x1 h
f (x) <0) and f(x) is decreasing on interval I).

These conditions can be summarised as follows:

f (x) is said to be increasing on an interval (a,b) iff f ( x)  0 on (a,b).

f (x) is said to be decreasing on an interval (a,b) iff f ( x)  0 on (a,b).

How to find intervals of increase and intervals of decrease of a function:

1) Find the domain of the function.

2) Find critical numbers of the function.
3) Subdivide domain of the function using critical numbers.
4) Test the sign of f (x) on the resulting subintervals and make a decision.

Example 7:

Find the intervals where the given function is increasing and where it is decreasing:

a) f ( x) = −3x + 10

Solution:

Domain of f(x) is the set of real numbers.

f ( x) = −3. This is never zero, therefore there are no critical numbers.
Sign of f (x) is negative on the domain. Therefore, f (x) is decreasing on (− ,+ ) ; it is never
increasing.

3t
b) s (t ) = .
t +2
2

Solution:
Domain of s(t) is (− ,+ ) .
 3(t 2 + 2) − 2t (3t ) − 3t 2 + 6
s(t ) = = 2 .
(t 2 + 2) 2 (t + 2) 2

s(t ) = 0  −3t 2 + 6 = 0  t 2 = 2  t =  2. These are critical numbers since they are in the
domain.

( )
Sign of s(t ) is positive on − 2 , 2 and negative elsewhere. Therefore, the function is
( )
increasing on − 2 , 2 and decreasing on − ,− 2  ( ) ( )
2,  .

Practice 7.1.

1. Given the graph of f, determine the interval(s) where f is increasing, decreasing, or

constant.

Answer: Increasing: ( −3, −1.5)  (0, 2) ; decreasing: ( −1.5, 0 )

2. Given the graph of f, determine the interval(s) where f is increasing, decreasing, or

constant.

Answer: Increasing: ( −, 0 )  (0, ) ; decreasing: nowhere

3. Given the graph of f, determine the interval(s) where f is increasing, decreasing, or

constant.
 Answer: Constant ( −, −3)  ( −1,  ) Increasing: ( −2, −1) ; Decreasing: ( −3, −2 )

4. Find the interval(s) where f ( x) = 5 − 2 x2 is increasing and the interval(s) where it is

decreasing.
Answer: Increasing: ( −, 0 ) ; decreasing: ( 0,  )

5. Find the interval(s) where f ( x) = 2 x 2 − 3x + 4 is increasing and the interval(s) where it is

decreasing.
3   3
Answer: Increasing:  ,   ; decreasing:  − , 
4   4

1 3
6. Find the interval(s) where f ( x) = x − 4 x 2 + 4 x − 12 is increasing and the interval(s)
3
where it is decreasing.
( ) ( ) (
Answer: Increasing: − ,4 − 2 3  4 + 2 3,  ; decreasing: 4 − 2 3,4 + 2 3 )

7. Find the interval(s) where f ( x) = x x + 12 is increasing and the interval(s) where it is

decreasing.
Answer: Increasing: (− 8,  ) ; decreasing: (− 12,−8)

8. Find the interval(s) where f ( x) = 25 − x 2 is increasing and the interval(s) where it is

decreasing.
Answer: Increasing: (− 5,0 ) ; decreasing: (0,5)
 x2
9. Find the interval(s) where f ( x) = is increasing and the interval(s) where it is
x +1
decreasing.
Answer: Increasing: (− ,−2)  (0,  ) ; decreasing: (− 2,−1)  (− 1,0 )

10. Find the interval(s) on which f ( x) = x − ln x is increasing and the interval(s) on

which it is decreasing.

Answer: Increasing: (1,  ) ; decreasing: (0,1)

11. Find the interval(s) where h( x) = xe x is increasing and the interval(s) where it is
decreasing.

Answer: Increasing: (− 1,  ) ; decreasing: (− ,−1)

12. The concentration (in milligrams per cubic centimeter) of a certain drug in a patient’s
t2
body t hours after injection is given by C (t ) = 3 , 0  t  5 . When is the
3t + 1
concentration of the drug increasing and when is it decreasing?
1 1
Answer: Increasing when 0  t  3 18 , decreasing when 3 18  t  5 .
3 3

7.3. Concavity and Points of Inflection of Functions

Concavity:

In our discussion of quadratic functions of the form f ( x) = ax2 + bx + c , we have seen that the
graph of f (x) opens upwards (concave up) on domain of f (x) if a > 0 and opens down
(concave down) on domain of f (x) if a < 0. While this test works for quadratic functions, we
need to determine concavity of all functions.

First, notice that for the given quadratic function, f ( x) = 2ax + b. We also know that if the
derivative of a function is positive, the function is increasing, and if the derivative of a function
is negative, the function is decreasing.
Let us apply this to the function f ( x) = 2ax + b. Its derivative is f ( x) = 2a.

If a < 0 then f ( x) = 2a  0 and the function f ( x) = 2ax + b is decreasing.

If a > 0 then f ( x) = 2a  0 and the function f ( x) = 2ax + b is increasing.

Combining this with the knowledge that if a < 0, the graph of the quadratic function is concave
down, and if a > 0 the graph is concave up, we can generalize this for all functions (since
concavity for all functions is either up or down on a given interval).

A function f (x) is said to be concave up on an interval I if f (x) is increasing on I, or

equivalently f ( x)  0 on I.
A function f (x) is said to be concave down on an interval I if f (x) is decreasing on I, or
equivalently f ( x)  0 on I.

Points of Inflection:

Sometimes functions change concavity (from concave up to concave down, or from concave
down to concave up). If this change in concavity takes place at values of x at which f (x) is
defined, the points are called points of inflection. At the points of inflection, f (x) is either zero
or undefined.

Points of inflection are points at which f (x) is defined and concavity changes.

At a point of inflection, f (x) is either zero or undefined. In order to find points of inflection we
first find potential candidates, that is points where f (x) is either zero or undefined, then see if
concavity changes at these points.

How to find intervals where the graph of a function is concave up or concave down:

In order to find intervals where a function is concave up or down, we simply need to find where
f ( x)  0 (for concave up) and where f ( x)  0 (for concave down).
In cases where we need to study other characteristics of f (x) , (such as finding critical points,
intervals of increase and decrease, or extreme points), we may have some information available
and we can follow the steps below to determine concavity:

1) Find the domain of the function.

2) Find critical numbers of the function (values of x in domain of the function where the
derivative is zero or undefined).
3) Find potential candidates for points of inflection (values of x in domain of the derivative
where the second derivative is zero or undefined).
4) Subdivide domain of the function using the above values of x.
5) Test the sign of f (x) on the resulting subintervals and make a decision.

Example 8:

Find where the following function is concave up or concave down and find, if any, inflection
x3 3x 2
points of the function f ( x) = − + 2 x.
2 2

Solution:

3x 2
f ( x) = − 3 x + 2.
2

f ( x) = 3x − 3.

Candidates for points of inflection occur where f ( x) = 0 or is undefined. Since f (x) is defined
everywhere (by virtue of being a polynomial), therefore candidates occur where f ( x) = 0.
Solving f ( x) = 3x − 3 = 0 gives x = 1 as the only candidate.

Since 3x − 3  0 for x > 1 (i.e. f(x) is concave up), and 3x − 3  0 for x < 1 (i.e. f(x) is concave
down), therefore concavity changes at x = 1. Hence, (1,f(1))=(1,1) is a point of inflection.

Practice 7.2:

1. Given the graph of f , determine the interval(s) where f(x) is concave upward and
concave downward.
 Answer: Concave upward: ( −, 0 ) ; Concave downward: (0, )

2. Given the graph of f , determine the interval(s) where f(x) is concave upward and
concave downward.

Answer: Concave upward: ( −, −2 )  (0, 4) ; Concave downward: (−2, 0)  (4, )

3. Determine where f ( x ) = −2 x 2 − 3x + 4 is concave upward and where it is concave

downward.
Answer: Concave downward: ( − , ) ; never concave upward

4. Determine where g ( x ) = 2 x 3 − 6 x 2 − 18 x is concave upward and where it is concave

downward.
Answer: Concave upward: (1,) ; concave downward: ( − ,1) .

1 3
5. Determine where g ( x ) = x − 4 x 2 + 4 x − 12 is concave upward and where it is concave
3
downward.
Answer: Concave upward: (4,) ; concave downward: ( − ,4) .
 t
6. Determine where s(t ) = is concave upward and where it is concave downward.
t −2
Answer: Concave upward: (2,) ; concave downward: ( − ,2) .

3t
7. Determine where s(t ) = is concave upward and where it is concave downward.
t +2 2

( ) ( )
Answer: Concave upward: − 6 ,0  6 ,  ; concave downward: − ,− 6  0, 6 ( ) ( )
8. Determine where f ( x) = 25 − x 2 is concave upward and where it is concave
downward.
Answer: Concave downward: ( − 5,5) ; never concave upward

x2
9. Determine where f ( x ) = is concave upward and where it is concave downward.
x +1
Answer: Concave upward: ( − 1, ) ; concave downward: ( − ,−1)

2x
10. Determine where f ( x ) = is concave upward and where it is concave downward.
( x + 2) 2
Answer: Concave upward: (4,) ; concave downward: ( − ,−2)  ( − 2,4)

11. Let f ( x) = xe 2 x .
(a) Find the interval(s) on which f (x) is concave upward.

Answer: (− 1,  )

(b) Find the interval(s) on which f (x) is concave downward.

Answer: (− ,−1)

(c) Find the x-coordinate(s) of any point(s) of inflection on the graph of f.

Answer: x = −1

1 2
12. Let f ( x) = e x − x .
2
(a) Find the interval(s) on which f (x) is concave upward.

Answer: (0,  )
 (b) Find the interval(s) on which f (x) is concave downward.

Answer: (− ,0 )

(c) Find the x-coordinate(s) of any point(s) of inflection on the graph of f.

Answer: x = 0

13. Let f ( x ) = x 3 + x .
(a) Find the interval(s) on which f ( x ) is concave upward.

Answer: (0,)

(b) Find the interval(s) on which f ( x ) is concave downward.

Answer: ( − ,0)

(c) Find the x-coordinate(s) of any point(s) of inflection of f .

Answer: x = 0

14. Let f ( x) = x 4 − 4 x 3 − 48x 2 − 64 x − 32 .

(a) Find the interval(s) on which f ( x ) is concave upward.

Answer: ( − ,−2)  (4, )

(b) Find the interval(s) on which f ( x ) is concave downward.

Answer: ( − 2,4)

(c) Find the x-coordinate(s) of any point(s) of inflection of f .

Answer: x = −2 and x = 4

15. Let f ( x) = 2x x − 4 .
(a) Find the interval(s) on which f ( x ) is concave upward.

 16 
Answer:  ,
 3 
 (b) Find the interval(s) on which f ( x ) is concave downward.

 16 
Answer:  4, 
 3

(c) Find the x-coordinate(s) of any point(s) of inflection of f .

16
Answer: x =
3

7.3. Extrema of Functions

Given an interval I over which a function f (x) or its graph are defined, we are interested in
finding its extreme values (that is, its maximum points and minimum points). These are
classified into:

1) Absolute (Global) Extreme Points:

These are the highest and lowest points on the graph of a function over its entire domain.

A function f (x) attains an absolute maximum at x = c , where c is in domain of f, if

f (c)  f ( x) for all x in domain of f.

A function f (x) attains an absolute minimum at x = c , where c is in domain of f, if f (c)  f ( x)

for all x in domain of f.

2) Relative (Local) Extreme Points:

These are the highest and lowest points on the graph of a function over a subset of the domain
(or in a small neighbourhood).

A function f has a relative maximum at x = c if there exists an open interval (a, b) containing c
such that f ( x)  f (c) for all x in (a, b).

A function f has a relative minimum at x = c if there exists an open interval (a, b) containing c
such that f ( x)  f (c) for all x in (a, b).
Finding Absolute and Relative Extrema:

Distinction between absolute and relative extrema is based on the type of interval I over which
f (x) is defined. If I is a closed interval (say [a,b] or a  x  b ), we generally deal with absolute
extrema. If I is an open interval, we generally deal with relative extrema.

Finding Absolute Extrema:

The following Extreme Value Theorem provides us with conditions for the existence of
absolute extrema. It emphasizes that absolute extrema can occur at end points of the interval or at
interior points. An extreme interior point occurs at a critical point.

Extreme Value Theorem

If f is continuous on a closed interval [a,b], then f has its absolute maxima and minima on
[a,b].

How to find absolute extrema:

1. Find critical numbers of f .

2. Identify the end points a and b of the interval.
3. Evaluate f at the critical numbers and at the end points.
4. The largest value in (3) is the absolute maximum, and the smallest an absolute minimum.

Note that it is possible to have more than one absolute maximum or absolute minimum on [a,b].

Example 9:

Find and classify extrema of the function f ( x) = ln( 2 + cos x) ; 0  x  2 .

Solution:

Since the function is defined on a closed interval, [0,2 ] , all extrema are absolute.
− sin x
f ( x) = . Since this is defined on [0,2 ] , critical numbers occur when f ( x) = 0.
2 + cos x
− sin x
f ( x) = 0  = 0  sin x = 0  x = 0,  ,2 .
2 + cos x
End points: x = 0,2 .
x f(x)
0 ln( 2 + cos0) = ln 3 Absolute Maximum
 ln( 2 + cos ) = ln( 2 − 1) = ln 1 = 0 Absolute Minimum
2 ln( 2 + cos2 ) = ln( 2 + 1) = ln 3 Absolute Maximum
Practice 7.3:

1. Given the graph of f, determine the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of f.

Answer: Absolute max: (0,3) ; absolute min: none

2. Given the graph of f, determine the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of f.

Answer: Absolute max: (−1,3) ; absolute min: (1, −2)

3. Given the graph of f, determine the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of
f.

Answer: Absolute max: (2, 4) ; absolute min: (−3, 0)

4. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of f (x ) = 2x 2 − 6x + 6 .
 3 3
Answer: Absolute minimum: f   = ; no absolute maximum
 2 2

5. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of f ( x) = 4 − x2 / 3 .

Answer: Absolute maximum: f ( 0) = 4; no absolute minimum

6. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of f ( x) = x 3 + 3x 2 on − 2,3 .

Answer: Absolute maximum: f ( 3) = 54; absolute minimum: f (0) = 0

x+2
7. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of g ( x ) = on  − 4,1 .
x−2
1
Answer: Absolute maximum: g (−4) = ; absolute minimum: g (1) = −3
3

8. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of f ( x) = 3x 2/ 3 − 6x + 6 on 18

, .
Answer: Absolute maximum: f (1) = 3; absolute minimum: f (8) = −30

x
9. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of f ( x ) = on  − 4,8 .
x +4 2

1 1
Answer: Absolute maximum: f ( 2) = ; absolute minimum: f ( −2) = −
4 4

1
10. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of f ( x ) = on  − 2,2 .
x + 3x + 42

 3 4 1
Answer: Absolute maximum: f  −  = ; absolute minimum: f ( 2) =
 2 7 14

x
11. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of f ( x ) = on  − 3,3 .
x + 3x + 4
2
 1
Answer: Absolute maximum: f ( 2) = ; absolute minimum: f ( −2) = −1
7

12. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of

g ( x) = e x − x on − 1,1 .

Answer: Absolute maximum: g (1) = e − 1 ; absolute minimum: g (0) = 1

2 +4 x
13. Find the absolute extrema of f ( x) = e− x on  0,3 .
Answer: Absolute maximum: f (2) = e4 ; absolute minimum: f (0) = 1

14. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of

g ( x) = 2 ln x − x on 1,3

Answer: Absolute maximum g (2) = 2 ln 2 − 2 ; absolute minimum g (1) = −1

Finding Relative Extrema:

Relative extreme points occur at critical points of a function f. For functions that are
differentiable at interior points where an extremum occurs, the tangent line is horizontal there.
This is provided by the following theorem due to Fermat.

Fermat’s Theorem
If the function f possesses a relative extreme point at an interior point c, and f (c) exists, then
f (c) = 0.

How to find relative extrema:

1) Find critical numbers of f (say c).

2) Decide if the function attains a relative maximum or a relative minimum at the critical
numbers using the First Derivative Test or the Second Derivative Test (described
below).
3) Evaluate the function to obtain the relative extreme point as an ordered pair (c, f(c)).
The First Derivative Test

Once you have obtained a critical number, say c, determine the sign of f  to the left and to the
right of c.

Sign of f  to Left of c Sign of f  to Right of c Decision

+ - f(c) is a relative maximum
(f is increasing) (f is decreasing)
- + f(c) is a relative minimum
(f is decreasing) (f is increasing)

This emphasizes that relative extreme occur at points where f  changes sign. This is further
illustrated in the following graph.

The Second Derivative Test

Once you have obtained a critical number, say c:

If f (c) = 0 and f (c)  0 , then f has a relative maximum at x = c.

If f (c) = 0 and f (c)  0 , then f has a relative minimum at x = c.

If f (c) = 0 or is undefined, then there is no decision. Use First Derivative Test.

Example 10:
2
Find and classify extrema of the function f ( x) = e− x /2
. Also find points of inflection, if any.

Solution:

Domain of f is the set of real numbers. Therefore, all extreme are relative.
2 2
f ( x) = − xe − x / 2 and f ( x) = ( x 2 − 1)e− x / 2 .

Since f (x) is defined for all real numbers, we find critical numbers by setting f ( x) = 0.
2 2
f ( x) = 0  − xe − x /2
= 0  x = 0 (since e − x /2
cannot be zero).

Critical number is x = 0 and critical point is (0, f (0)) = (0, e0 ) = (0,1).

Since f (0) = (02 − 1)e0 = −1  0 , therefore we have a relative maximum at x= 0. The relative
maximum point is (0, f (0)) = (0,1). The relative maximum of the function is f(0) = 1.

2
Since f ( x) = ( x 2 − 1)e− x /2
is defined for all real numbers, candidates for points of inflection
occur where f ( x) = 0.
2
f ( x) = 0  ( x 2 − 1)e − x /2
= 0  x 2 − 1 = 0  x = 1 or -1.

When x > 1 or x < -1, f ( x)  0 (hence f(x) is concave up).

When -1 < x < 1, f ( x)  0 (hence f(x) is concave down).

Since concavity changes at x = 1 and x = -1, therefore we have points of inflection there.
Points of inflection are (−1, f (−1)) = (−1, e−1 / 2 ) and (1, f (1)) = (1, e−1 / 2 ).

Example 11:

Let f (x) = x4 - 2x2.

Find, if possible, critical numbers and points, intervals of increase and decrease, concavity,
points of inflection, maxima and minima.

Solution:

f (x) = x4 - 2x2. f '(x) = 4x3 - 4x = 4x(x2 - 1) = 4x(x + 1)(x - 1). The sign

diagram of f ' shows that f is decreasing on (-∞,-1)  (0,1) and increasing on

(-1,0)  (1,∞).
 b. The results of (a) and the First Derivative Test show that (-1,-1) and (1,-1) are

relative minima and (0,0) is a relative maximum.

c. f "(x) = 12x2 - 4 = 4(3x2 - 1) = 0 if x =  3 / 3. The sign diagram

shows that f is concave upward on (-∞, − 3 / 3 )  ( 3 / 3 , ∞) and concave

downward on (- 3 / 3 , 3 / 3 ).

d. The results of (c) show that (- 3 / 3 ,-5/9) and ( 3 / 3 ,-5/9) are inflection points.

Example 12:

Let f (x) = x + 4x .

Find, if possible, critical numbers and points, intervals of increase and decrease, concavity,
points of inflection, maxima and minima.

Solution:
2 ( x −2)( x +2 )
f (x) = x + 4x . f '(x) = 1 − 42 = x −2 4 = . Setting f '(x) = 0 gives x = -2 and x = 2 as
x x x2
critical points of f. f '(x) is undefined at x = 0 as well. The sign diagram for f ' is below.

a. f is increasing on (-∞,-2)  (2,∞) and decreasing on (-2,0)  (0,2).

b. f (-2) = -4 is a relative maximum and f (2) = 4 is a relative minimum.

c. Next, we compute f ( x) = 8

x3
. Since f "(x) < 0 for x < 0 and f "(x) > 0 for x > 0, we see
that f is concave downward on (-∞,0) and concave upward on (0,∞).
 d. There are no inflection points. Note that x = 0 is not in the domain of f and is

therefore not a candidate for an inflection point.

Example 13:

x2
Let f (x) = .
x −1

Find, if possible, critical numbers and points, intervals of increase and decrease, concavity,
points of inflection, maxima and minima.

Solution:

x2 ( x − 1)(2 x ) − x 2 (1) x 2 − 2 x x ( x − 2)
a. f (x) = . f '(x) = = = .
x −1 ( x − 1) 2 ( x − 1) 2 ( x − 1) 2

The sign diagram of f ' shows that f is increasing on (-∞,0)  (2,∞) and decreasing on

(0,1)  (1,2).

b. The results of (a) show that (0,0) is a relative maximum and (2,4) is a relative

minimum.

( x − 1) 2 (2 x − 2) − x ( x − 2)2( x − 1) 2( x − 1)[( x − 1) 2 − x ( x − 2)]

c. f ( x ) = =
( x − 1) 4 ( x − 1) 4

2
= .
( x − 1) 3

Since f "(x) < 0 if x < 1 and f "(x) > 0 if x > 1, we see that f is concave downward on
(-∞,1) and concave upward on (1,∞).

d. Since x = 1 is not in the domain of f, there are no inflection points.

Practice 7.4:

1. Given the graph of f, determine the relative maxima and relative minima of f.

Answer: relative max: (0,3) ; relative min: none

2. Given the graph of f, determine the relative maxima and relative minima f.

Answer: relative max: (−4,1) ; relative min: (2, −2)

3. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of f ( x) = x2 − 8x .

Answer: Relative minimum f (4) = −16 ; no relative maximum

4. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of f ( x) = x4 / 3 .

Answer: Relative minimum f (0) = 0 ; no relative maximum

5. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of f ( x) = 3 − x2 / 3 .

 Answer: Relative maximum f (0) = 3 ; no relative minimum

6. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of g (t ) = −t 2 + 4t + 4 .

Answer: Relative maximum g( 2) = 8 ; no relative minimum

7. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of g ( x) = x 3 − x 2 − 5x + 6 .

 5 13
Answer: Relative minimum g  = − ; relative maximum g( −1) = 9
 3 27

1
8. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of g ( x ) = − x 4 + 2 x 2 .
4
Answer: Relative minimum g ( 0) = 0 ; relative maxima g( 2) = 4

9. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of g ( x ) = 3x 4 − 4 x 3 + 5 .

Answer: Relative minimum g(1) = 4 ; no relative maximum

x
10. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of f ( x ) = .
2x + 3
Answer: No relative extremum

11. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of g ( x) = x + 3x −1 .

Answer: Relative minimum g ( 3) = 2 3 ; relative maximum g(− 3) = −2 3

12. Find the relative maxima and relative minima, if any, of f ( x) = x x − 9 .

Answer: No relative extremum.

13. Use the second derivative test to find the relative maxima and relative minima of
g ( x) = x 3 − 9 x .
 Answer: Relative minimum g ( 3 ) = −6 3 ; relative maximum g (− 3) = 6 3

14. Use the second derivative test to find the relative maxima and relative minima of
2
g ( x) = e x − x .
1
Answer: Relative minimum g   = e−1/ 4 ; relative maximum: none
2

7.4. Optimization: Applied Max/Min Problems

In our study of functions in this course, we dealt only with functions of a single (independent)
variable x. In reality, we may encounter dependence of one variable on one or more independent
variables. This is definitely the case in optimization, where we are required to find the maximum
or minimum of a function (the objective function) of more than one independent variable,
subject to a condition (constraint) on the independent variables.

The general format of the problem for two independent variables is:

Maximize or Minimize: objective function f(x,y)

Subject to: constraint on x and y.

To solve this problem, we first use the constraint to find an expression for one of the independent
variables in terms of the other independent variable, then substitute this expression in the
objective function to reduce it to a function of a single variable. We then use our the concepts
developed so far to find the maximum or minimum of f.

Example 14:

What two positive integers add up to 100 and produce the largest product?

Solution:

Let x and y be the two numbers, and P is their product.

Objective Function: Maximize P = xy. ...(1)
Constraint: x + y = 100. ...(2)
From (2) we find y = 100-x. ...(3)

Using (3) in (1), we get: P = x(100-x)= 100 x − x 2 .

Therefore, P = 100 − 2 x.
Critical numbers: P = 0  100 − 2 x = 0  x = 50.
Now, y = 100-50=50, and P=xy=50(50)=2500.
Note that P = 2500 is maximum since P(25) = −2  0.

Example 15:

An aluminium can of pop is designed in the shape of a right circular cylinder to hold 355 cm 3 of
fluid. Find the dimensions of the can (that is, its height h and radius r) that will minimize its
surface area (amount of aluminium used).

Solution:

Volume of can is V = r 2 h , and surface area is A = 2rh + 2r 2 .

355
V = 355  r 2 h = 355  h = .
r 2
355 710
Thus, A = 2rh + 2r 2 = 2r ( 2 ) + 2r 2 = + 2r 2 .
r r
710
A = − 2 + 4r.
r
710 355 355
A = 0  − 2 + 4r = 0  r 3 = r=3 cm.
r 2 2

355 355 355

h= =h= = 2[3 ] = 2r.
r 2 355 2
3 ( ) 2

2
710
These dimensions minimize the surface area since A = 2 + 4  0 for r > 0.
r3

Practice 7.5.:

1. A farmer has 460 feet of fencing with which to enclose a rectangular grazing pen next to
a barn. The farmer will use the barn as one side of the pen, and will use the fencing for
the other three sides. Find the dimensions of the pen with the maximum area.
Answer: 115 feet by 230 feet

2. By cutting away identical squares from each corner of a rectangular piece of cardboard
and folding up the resulting flaps, an open box may be made. If the cardboard is 10
inches long and 10 inches wide, find the dimensions of the box that will yield the
maximum volume.
 20 20 5
Answer: inches by inches by inches
3 3 3

3. A property management company manages 200 apartments renting for $800 each with all
the apartments rented. For each $10 per month increase in rent there will be two
vacancies with no possibility of filling them. What rent per apartment will maximize the
total monthly revenue?
Answer: $900

4. The window below is to have a perimeter of 20 feet. Find the dimensions that will
maximize the area (to let the most light in).

20
Answer: r =  2.8 feet, y  2.8 feet
4+

5. An editorial assistant at Bloke/Coors Publishing Company arbitrarily decided that the

pages of a book should have three-quarter-inch margins at the top and bottom and half-
inch margins on the sides. She further stipulated that each page should have an area of 40
square inches. Determine the page dimensions that will result in the maximum printed
area on the page.
4
Answer: Height: 2 15 ; width: 15
3

6. You wish to construct an open rectangular box with a volume of 18 cubic feet. The
length of the base of the box is to be twice as long as the width. The material for the
bottom of the box costs 10 cents per square foot, while the material for the sides of the
box costs 20 cents per square foot. Find the dimensions of the least expensive box which
can be constructed.
Answer: width = 3 feet, length = 6 feet, height = 1 foot
 PROBLEM SET 7

1. Find, if any, relative maxima and minima of the given function:

a) f ( x) = −2 x 2 − 3x + 2
b) f ( x) = x 16 x − x 2
c) f ( x) = sin x − sin 2 x
x 2x
d) f ( x) = + cos( )
3 3
2. For the function f ( x) = sin 2 x , find, if possible:
a) Critical numbers and critical points
b) Intervals of increase and/or decrease
c) Relative extrema
d) Intervals where the function is concave up and/or down
e) Points of inflection.
3. The concentration C of a medication in the bloodstream t hours after an injection is given
0.2t
by C (t ) = .
1+ t2
a) Determine the number of hours before C attains its maximum.
b) Find the maximum concentration.

4. The number of milligrams y of a medication in the bloodstream t hours after a dose is

2000 t
taken is given by y (t ) = .
16 + t 2
a) For what values of t is y increasing?
b) For what values of t is y maximum?
c) What is the maximum of y?

5. According to Poiseuille’s law, the speed S of blood through an artery of radius r at a

distance x from the artery wall is given by S = k[r 2 − (r − x) 2 ] , where k is a constant. Find
the distance x that maximizes the speed.

6. Suppose that the oxygen level P (for purity) in a body of water t months after an oil spill
4 16
is given by P (t ) = 500[1 − + ].
t + 4 (t + 4) 2
a) How long will it take for oxygen level to reach its minimum?

b) Find the time rate of change of P.

c) Maximize the time rate of change of P.

7. According to B.F. Visser, the velocity v of air in the trachea during a cough is related to
the radius r of the trachea according to v = ar 2 (r0 − r ) , where a is a constant and r0 is the
 radius of the trachea in a relaxed state. Find the radius r that produces the maximum
velocity of air in the trachea during a cough.

8. The reaction R to an injection of a drug is related to the dose x, in milligrams, according

x dR
to R( x) = x 2 (500 − ). The sensitivity S to the drug is defined by S = .
3 dx
a) Find the dose that yields the maximum reaction.
b) Find the dose that yields the maximum sensitivity.

9. Concentration (in mg/ml) in the bloodstream of a certain drug is related to the time t (in
minutes) after an injection and can be calculated using y in the equation
y = A ln( t ) − Bt + C , where A,B,C are positive constants.
Find t at which y reaches its maximum (express your answer in terms of A and B).
10. Find the smallest perimeter possible for a rectangle whose area is 36cm 2 ?
11. A rectangle has its base on the x-axis and its upper two vertices on the parabola
y = 3 − x 2 . What is the largest area the rectangle can have?
12. Find the dimensions of a right circular cylinder that is open on the top, closed on the
bottom, holds 1 litre, and uses the least amount of material.
13. A box with square base and open top is to be made of 1000 cm 2 of cardboard. Find the
dimensions of the largest such box.