Buyer Behaviour (Consumer Behaviour)

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Preview Case

Cultural Differences on Consumer Behaviour

Do consumers desire quicker service and delivery of product? Do they prefer options that offer early pay offs?
Are consumers willing to pay more for immediate rather than delayed gratification (satisfaction)? Answers to these
queries probably reflect consumers' impatience, which is a contemporary research area in consumer behaviour. It
has been found that cross-cultural variations are possible in such consumer behaviour, specifically in consumer
impatience.
Previous studies say that time orientation varies with culture -
for some, time is less important and irrelevant while others value the
time element. There are many consumers who want to buy their desired
product immediately rathe·r than wait. This behaviour is manifested in
consumer impatience.
Research to understand the degree to which this behaviour
manifests reveals that promotional messag~s that emphasise negative
info evoke more attention and may lead to more impatience. Further,
nature of the goal emphasized in the message and culture's dominant
self-view will affect impatience of consumers. Researchers discuss two
types of self-regulatory goals - promotion goal (motivation to get ...;.a......,....,.__ _.................___.____,......,-.::..J.....,
desirable result) and prevention goal (motivation to avoid undesirable outcome). It has also been perceived that
prevention goais are consistent with Asian cultures and promotion goals are typical of the Western culture. Thus, a
congruency in self-view and the way the message is framed will impact persuasion of consumers.
Research findings suggest that the consumers exhibiting Western culture placed a higher value on immediate
consumption opportunity by fulfilling a promotion goal and showing a higher willingness to pay. Whereas, consumers
exhibiting Asian culture viewed the consumption opportunity as fulfilling a prevention goal and showed a higher willingness
to pay. That means, Westerners are willing to pay more to achieve a desirable outcome, while Easterners are willing to
pay to avoid an undesirable outcome.
Hence, researchers say in Western cultures, ad messages must suggest that standard delivery limits the early
enjoyment of a product and this can yield higher degree of impatient behaviour and thus higher willingness to pay for
faster delivery. In Eastern cultures, ad messages must emphasise how standard delivery extends the waiting time and
this possibility can lead to higher degree of impatient consumer behaviour and could enhance the consumers' willingness
to pay.
(Source: "Cultural Differences on Consumer Impatience", byHaipeng Allan Chen et al,
Journal of Marketing Research, [Link], August 2005)

What is Consumer Behaviour?

Consumer behaviour or buyer behaviour is defined as the behaviour that consumers display in searching for,
purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs.1 Consumer
behaviour focuses on how individuals make decisions to spend their available resources (time, money, effort) on
consumption-related items. That includes what they buy, why they buy it, when they buy it, where they buy it from, how
often they buy it, how often they use it, how they evaluate it after the purchase and the impact of such evaluations on future
purchases, and how they dispose of it.

As individuals we all differ in many ways-in likes, dislikes, attitudes, cultural background, income level, etc. Despite
such differences, there is a common factor among all of us, i.e., above all, we are all consumers . We buy, use, or
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consume regularly food, clothing, shelter, transportation, education, equipment, necessities, luxuries, services, and even
ideas. As consumers, we all play an important role in the overall health of the economy. The buying decisions we make
affect the demand for basic raw materials, for transportation, for production, for banking, etc. They also affect the employment
of workers and the deployment of resources, the success of some industries and the failure of others.
In order to succeed in any business in today's competitive market, marketers have to know everything they can,
about consumers. They must know what the buyers want, what the buyers think, how they work, how they spend their
leisure time, and so on. They need to also understand the personal and group influences that affect consumer decisions
and how these decisions are made by consumers.

Relevance of Consumer Behaviour Studies

In the present day competitive marketing scenario, studying and understanding consumer behaviour w ill be the key to business
success. Companies are in business today, only to serve the customer and satisfy him. Those that do so efficiently and
effectively are the ones that make a profit. The study of consumer behaviour provides the basic knowledge necessary to make
successful business decisions.
Consumer behaviour studies open up many avenues for students planning for a career in mar1<eting. A perso n with a thorough
knowledge of consumer behaviour understands the underlying reasons why consumers are loyal to a brand. Study ab oul the
psychology and sociology of consumers helps brand managers and product managers in preparing strategies for their business.
Thus, studying consumer behaviour can lead to a career in brand or product management in a mar1<eting company.
Knowledge of the psychology of the consumers will help one to secure a good job in an advertising agency. All the motivational
and persuasive tactics of advertising spring from the understanding of consumer behaviour. Knowing how consumers will ,eaCl
to certain types of cues or stimuli should help determine the advertising strategy for different brands in different industries.
 Buyer Behaviour (Consumer Behaviour)

For a studen t with strong quantitative and analylical

market ing researc h in securin g a m arkelin g resear
unders tands consum er behavi our, one will be able to
skills, sludy o f consum er beh aviour will be u seful
ch analys l's positio n in a company. As a ma rket resear
•
in combin ation with
c h analys t wh_ o
provide deeper recomm endatio ns to top management.
The concep t of custom er relation ship m anagem ent (CRM)
has gained prime impo rl ance in busine ss nowad ays.
compa nies are interested in deploy ing some sort of CRM A numt>e r of
strateg y in their fi rms. An unders tanding of consumer
prerequisite to employing a C RM strateg y in a firm . T behav iour is a
here are sludents who becom e ve ry fascina ted by the
behavi our and pursue even a doctorate in the subjec study of consum er
t. Throug h their study, they develo p the knowle dge of
our unders tanding of consumers. the field and further

The term, 'consu mer behaviour', deals with two differe nt

catego ries of consu mers - the household consu mer (perso
consumer) and the organi zation al consu mer (busin ess nal
or industrial consu mer) . The house hold buyer buys goods
services for his or her own person al use, for the use of the and
household, or as a gift for a fri end or relative. Here, the
• are bough t for final use of individ uals, who are referre produ cts
d to as end users o r final consu mers . All such fi nal
combine to make up the consu mer marke t. The organi zation consu mers
al buyer includ es profit and non-profit compa nies, gover
agencies (state or nation al), and institu tions (schoo ls, nmen t
colleg es, hospit als , hotels), all of which buy produ cts,
and service s to run their organi zation s, or for furthe r produc equip ment
tion. End-u se consu mption is perha ps the most pervas
types of buyer behav iour as it involv es every individ ual ive of all
human being.
Buying Choracteri~tics Influencing Consumer Behaviour

Consumer behaviour 1s influenced by cultural, social, personal and psychological characteristics. The marketing
people will not be able to control these factors , but nevertheless have to understand and reckon them.
Buyer Behaviour (Consumer Behaviour)
m
1. Cultural 2. Soclal 3. Personal 4. Psychologlcal
Culture Reference Age and life Motiva tion
groups cycle stage
Subculture Family Occupation Perception
Social class Roles and Economic situation Learning beliefs
status Lifestyle and attitudes
Personality and
self-concept

1. Cultural Character istics

Culture: Cultural factors like the buyer's culture, subculture, and social class exert the broadest and deepest
influence
on consumer behaviour. Culture is the most fundamental determinant of a person's wants and
behaviour. As a person
grows up in society, he learns a basic set of values, perceptions, preferences, and behaviour
through a process of
socialization involving the family and other key institutions.

Marketing people look for cultural shifts to find out new products that may be demanded. Concern
about health and
fitness, for example, is a cultural shift which created a market for health equipments, health drinks,
slimming centres, etc.
Similarly, the shift towards informality created demand for casual clothing like jeans, T-shirts, tops,
etc. ·
Subculture: The main culture includes smaller groups of subcultures within its fold that provide more
specific
identification and socialization for its members. Subcultures like nationality groups, religious
groups, racial groups,
communities, and geographi cal areas have distinct characteristic lifestyles.

Social Classes: Social classes are homogeneous social stratifications in society whose members share
similar
values, interests, and behaviour. Upper class, middle class, lower middle class, and lower class
are such social classes.
Social class is determined by occupation, income, education, etc. Consumers within a social class
may have similar buyer
behaviour, and product and brand preferences.

2. Social Characte ristics

Social factors like the consumer 's reference groups, family, social roles and status also influence
buyer behaviour.
Reference Groups: Reference groups influence buyer behaviour very strongly.
Membership groups can be primary groups which have direct influence like family, friends,
neighbours, and co-
workers. Secondary groups can be religious organizations and trade unions. An aspirational group
is one to which the
person wishes to belong. These groups expose an individual to new behaviour and lifestyles which
in turn will affect his
choices of products and brands. In the case of products and brands with strong group influence,
marketers must seek the
help of opinion leaders in the relevant reference group, who will exert influence on others because;
of their personality,
knowledge, special skills, etc. Marketers identify opinion leaders and make direct marketing efforts
toward them. Members
of the group watch their leader's style and behaviour, and try to emulate them.

Famlly: Members of the buyer's family can exercise a strong influence on the buyer's behaviour The family
consists
of one's parents, spouse and children. Marketing people are interested in the roles and influence
of the husband, wife and
children on buying decisions. Decision-makers, in case of some goods and services, will be
husband-o riented, wife-
dominant, and equal.
Role and Status: A buyer may belong to many groups at the same time, like family, clubs, associatio
ns, or
organizations. His position in each group will be specified by his role and status. Such roles and
status will also influence
some of his buying decisions.
 m Marketing Management

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Even children's buying behaviour counts!

In fact, It counts more than Rs. 20,000 crore per annum!

3. Personal Characteristics
Buyer behaviour Is also Influenced by the buyer's personal characteristics, notably his or her age and life-cycle
stage, occupation, economic circumstances, lifestyle, personality, and self-concept.

Age and Life-Cycle Stage: The needs, wants and demand for goods and services change In the buyer's lifetime.
Buyer's tastes in food , clothes, furniture and recreation are all related , and likely to change. Family life cycle consists
of
stages like young singles, newly married, married with children (fu ll nest), elderty couple living alone (empty nest), or
single
parents (working or retired). Consumption Is shaped by the stage in which the buyer is presently.

Occupation: Buyer's consumption pattern is also influenced by his occupation. A factory worker may buy worl<
clothes, work shoes, lunch boxes, etc., wh ile a company executive may buy expensive suits, watches, travel accessories,
tickets for air travel, luxury car, etc.
' '

Economic Circumstances: Economic circumstances of the buyer will affect his product choice. This consists of his
spendable income, saving and assets, borrowing power and attitude toward spending and savings.

Lifestyle: Life style is an individual's way or pattern of living, which is reflected in his activities, interests and
opinions. Consumers with the same cultural , sub-cultural, occupational and social class background could have varyin9
lifestyles. This is a factor that has to be thoroughly studied by marketing people.

Personality and Self-Concept: Personality is the person's distinguishing psychologica l characteristics that lead to
relatively consistent and enduring responses to his or her own environment. It is described in tenns of such traits like
sett·
 ..
Buyer Behaviour (Consumer Behaviour)

confidence, dominance, autonomy, sociability, defensiveness, and adaptability . In studying consumer behaviour, personality
is very important, as it affects the buying decisions and selection ot products and brands.

Marketers try to create brand personality for some produc ts, consistin g of a mix of human traits. Buyers very often
select brands with matching personality of their own. Example: Raymonds and Reid & Tailor suitings, Omega watches,
Zodiac ties. Marketers sometim es use buyer's self-concept or self-Image to match brand images

"Personality drives purchase" - says VALS model

Personality, instead of social values, is the basis for segmentation In the contex1 of consumer behaviour in the current VALS
system and this will give greater value to advertisers and marketers. The VALS (Value And Life Styles) segmentation was
introduced by the US-based SRI Consultants, and it was originally based on consumer's social values and lifestyles. Consumers
were grouped accordingly into groups of Actualise rs, Fulfilleds, Achievers, Experiencers, Believers, Strivers, Makers, and
Strugglers.
In a revised VALS model which is developed as applicable in the Indian context, SRI uses personality as an important factor in
consumer behaviour studies. Personality research provides the theoretical basis and psychometrics (the measurement of
individual differences) provides the measurement approach.
According to the new VA LS model, the consumer's personality dictates his purchase.
An 'innovator' will be a very active consumer and his purchase will reflect cultivated tastes . A 'thinker' will look for durability and
value while buying.
The key benefit of VALS is to help marketers go beyond demograph ics to understand the motivations driving consumer
behaviour and decision-making so that they can match the right products and messages with the right people. People with the
same demographics (age, sex, education, financial resources) can have different motivations. By ex1ension, VALS as a general
segmentation, helps marketers analyse important behaviour patterns (product purchase, usage patterns, trial, early adoption,
etc.) in a broader, inte rpretive contex1. This includes m otivations, decision-m aking style, communication style, media and
channel use, and consumption-based lifestyle among othe r attributes.
Many market segmentations are not reliable ove r time. Some kinds of cluster analysis segmentations provide a current, static
picture that becomes irrelevant across time. That is why VALS model is becoming popular for practical applications across a
wide range of industries to study consumer behaviour and segment the markets . The key concept in VALS model is that by
appropriately measuring personality components with attitude scales and appropriately weighting these scales, segments of
consumers sharing similar attitudes and behaviour can be reliably defined.
India VALS will provide a more complete picture of an Indian consumer to the marketers. It will also provide linkages to the
existing databases available with the marketer. Immediate application will be for automobiles, consumer durables, FMCG,
media, airlines and finance sectors.

(Source: BIii Gunns, CEO, SRI Consulting, Pitch, June 2005)

4. Psychological Characteristics
Motivation, perception, learning, beliefs and attitudes also influence buyer behaviour. These are psychological factors.
Motivation: Buyer's needs are normally biogenic o r physiological , and psychogenic or psychologicaL When they are
aroused to a sufficient level of intensity they become motives, urging the buyer to seek satisfaction. Abraham Maslow
explained the driving force of people's needs as consisting of a need hierarchy. This included physiological needs, safety
needs, social needs, esteem needs and self-actualisation needs .
Needs, according to Maslow, are satisfied according to their hierarchical priority. The buyer's behaviour will be
influenced by all these motives.
m Marketing Management

needs
(self-develo pment
and realization)

Esteem needs
(self-esteem, recognition, status)

Social needs
(sense of belonging, love)

Safety needs
( security, protection)

Physi_ological needs
(hunger, thirst)

Fig. 4.2: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

(Source: Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, Harper & Row, N.Y. 1954)

Perception: Once motivated, how the motivated buyer acts is influenced by his or her perception of the situation.
That is, how the buyer receives, selects, organizes and interprets information. Buyers can emerge with different perception
of the same stimulus object because of three perceptual processes : selective exposure, selective distortion, and selective
retention .

Consumers are exposed to a tremendous amount of stimuli everyday of their lives. Out of this, most of the stimuli
will be screened out, only a few will be selected by buyers, depending on the relation to a current need. Simirar1y,
buyers
forget about some stimuli and retain only what they want. Because of these factors, marl<ete~ use considerable
drama
and repetition in sending messages to their target markets.

Leaming: Buyers learn through their actions. Learning involves changes in the buyer's behaviour as a result of his
experience. The buyer's learning is produced through the interplay of drives, stimuli, cues, responses, and reinforcemen
t.
Beliefs and Attitudes: People's beliefs and attitudes also influence their buyer behaviour. Beliefs may be founded on
knowledge, opinion or faith. It is a descriptive thought that the buyer has about something. Beliefs are important from
the
marketer's point of view because product and brand im~ges are based on beliefs and, therefore, affect buyer's behaviour.

Attitudes reveal the judgments, feelings, and tendencies of the buyer towards·an object or an idea Attitudes exhib~
the buyer's frame of mind of liking or disliking things, and of moving toward or away from them. Marketers should
try to frt
their product offerings into the buyer's existing attitudes rather than trying to change attitudes, which is a difficult
task.
Buyer Behaviour (Consumer Behaviour)

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A person's choice of products is the result of the complex interplay of cultural, social, personal and psychological
factors. Many of these factors cannot be influenced by the marketers. They are useful, however, in identifying the buyers
Who might have the most interest in the product. Other factors are subject to the marketer's influence and give clues to the
marketer on how to develop product, price, place and promotion to attract strong consumer response.
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Buying Decision·m aking Process

Marketers have to go beyond the various Influences on buyers and develop an understanding of how consumers
actually make their buying decisions. Marketers must identify who makes the buying decision, the type of buying decision
that is involved, and the steps in the buying process.

For many products, it is fairly easy to identify the buyer. Men normally choose their ties, shoes, dress material, etc.,
and women choose their cosmetics, dress material and kitchenware. On the other hand, other products involve a decision
making unit consisting of more than one person.

Bu ying Roles

We can distinguish several roles people might play in a buying decision. These are given below:
1. Initiator
2. Influencer
3. Decider
4. Buyer
5. User

Buy It Like Beckham!

When Victoria Beckham's blue and white porcelain Roberto Cavalli dress turned out to be a big hit among fashionistas recently,
she surprised her fans by saying her husband had chosen it for her. "My husband picks out most of my clothes for me," she
added. Men shopping for clothes and cosmetics for women is a huge trend across the world and in India too many wives are now
happy to let their spouses shop for them. Men have fine-tuned tastes, al'Kl often instinctively know what will look good on women.
Though many men hate to shop, when it comes to buying women's things, they seem to have mastered the art of picking out the
best.
Says fashion style expert Sheetal Sharma, "My husband is so aware of fashion trends that I am always taking fashion advice
from him. When he travels , he picks out some of the nicest clothes for me and it is·never typical or run-of-the mill kind of clothing.
The most unusual and best clothes in my wardrobe have been bought by him. Recently, he bought me a pair of designer
sunglasses and that is not easy unless you try them on. But he got it right and I just love them."
A well-known fashion guru has been shopping for his wife for 20 ye~rs now. "I know exactly what she likes and that her favourite
colours are white, black and orange," he says. "In fact, when we go shopping together, she tends to be a little more picky, but
when I shop for her, she usually likes whatever I buy. I enjoy doing it immensely."
Another young professional, who loves the clothes her husband buys for her on his trips abroad, adds, "He travels so much that
he makes up by getting me things from many places. Besides clothes, he also shops for cosmetics, skin care products and shoes
and his taste Is impeccable. He just observes where most shoppers are heading towards and Joins them."
But not all women always like what their men buy for them. A few complain that their men do not get the kind of perfumes they like
and sometimes they go wrong in the clothes too.
(Source: [Link] , 2006)
 Marketing Management

Stages in the Buying Decision Process

The Stage-Mod el of the buying process shows the consumer as passing through five stages. They are:

1. Need recognition

2. Information search

3. Evaluation of alternatives

4 . Purchase decision

5 . Post purchase behaviour

1. Need Recogni tion

The buying decision process starts with the buyer's recognition of a problem or need. Consumers typically make
buying decisions to satisfy a particular need or a want. A student, for example, could realise that he is hungry and
hence
has to buy some food - a pizza, meals or biriyani, or to avoid late-coming to class, he has to buy a motorcycle. A consumer
problem can be any state of deprivation or discomfort felt by a consumer. Need or problem recognition happens
when
consumers realise that they need to do something to get back to a normal state of comfort.
The need can be triggered by either an internal stimulus or an external stimulus. Internal stimuli are perceived states
of discomfort - physical or psychologic al (like hunger, fear of late-coming to class, and esteem needs like the prestige
of
owning a motor cycle). External stimuli are information al cues from the market that lead the consumer to realise
the need
or problem (like advertisem ent of food, motorcycle , etc. ). Sometimes some consumers may not recognise latent
needs
till they see or hear about some products. Modern gadgets like MP3 players, iPods, iPads, camera mobile phones,
etc
are examples. The easy availability of personal loans (EMI schemes) and credit cards have made many consumers
realise the need to buy a motorcycle, a car or a house. The marketer needs to identify the circumstanc es that trigger
the
particular need or interest in consumers .

2 . Informatio n Search
In many cases, an aroused consumer searches for information about the product. In information search, consumers
usually consider only a select subset of brands. His awareness set will include brands about which the consumer
is
aware of. An 'evoked set' will include brands in a product category that the consumer remembers at the time of
decision
making. Of the evoked set, not all are deemed to fit the need. Those considered unfit are eliminated. The remaining
brands are termed the 'considerati on set' - the brands a consumer will consider buying.
Initially, consumers seek information about the consideration set of brands. If the product in question is a motorcycle,
this may include popular brands like Yamaha, Honda and Bullet. New information can bring additional brands (like
Oucati
or Harley Davidson) into the awareness, evoked and consideration sets.
Consumer' s information sources can be of different types - personal, commercial or experimental sources. Personal
sources of Information are family, friends, neighbours , and peers. This type of information is also known as
word-of-
mouth, is very credible and plays a critical role in the selection of products. Commercia l sources of information
are
advertisem ents from the marketers, sales persons, dealers, PoP display and product leaflets. Company websites
also.
prove to be a good source of such information nowadays. Experimental sources include handling, examining and
using
 Buyer Behaviour (Consumer Behaviour) m
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It's really easy I

Ad focuaalng on building customer confidence and relatlonahlp

the products. For example, a motorcycle can be test-driven for trial and experimental use by a consumer. Since Information
gathering has costs In terms of time, physical effort and mental effort, consumers weigh the costs against the likely gains
from Information search. This comparison helps them to decide how much information they will collect and from what
sources. Mostly, the information search will be a complex process for expensive products like a motorcycle, a car, or an
apartment, and simple for low-cost products.

3. Evaluation of Alternatives
After gathering sufficient information, the consumer evaluates the alternatives. Here, the concepts involved are
product attributes, weightage for important attributes, brand image, price, utility function and evaluation procedure. In ttie
case of evaluating a motorcycle, for example, the student may compare brand image, design and style of the models,
price, mileage, power, speed, maintenance expenses, etc.

4. Purchase Decision
After the brand and model are decided, the consumer forms a purchase intention decision, followed by the purchase
decision. The purchase decision also includes the vendor decision {from which dealer the bike is to be purchased), timing
decision (to buy immediately or wait for some time, awaiting a discount), and payment terms or method decision {cash
&carry, instalment scheme (EMI) tying up with a bank loan).
m Marketing fytanagement

5. Post-pu rchase behavio ur

ion or dissatisfaction. This is
After purchasing the product, the consume rs will experien ce some level of satisfact
ions the buyer will be disappointed
the post-pur chase evaluation stage. If the product falls short of the buyer's expectat
expectations, the buyer will be
and dissatisfied. If it meets expectations, the buyer will be satisfied. If it exceeds
have three possible responses - decide
delighted. Following a satisfactory or dissatisfactory experien ce, consume rs will
and become a loyal customer of the
to reject the brand, voice displeasure through negative word-of-mouth, or buy
product / brand.
due to post-purchase conflict.
Most purchas es result in cognitive dissonan ce which is a discomfort felt by the buyer
choice was right, etc. Markete rs try to
The buyers wonder whether their buying decision was right, the product or brand
A satisfied buyer may tell three people
avoid dissatisfaction to the customers. Excellen t marketers aim at custome r delight.
Therefore, the markete r has to carefully
about a good product experience. But a dissatisfied custome r may tell 11 people.
ry.
monitor custome r satisfaction regularly and take corrective actions whenever necessa
influences are operating. This
The markete r's job is to understa nd the buyer's behaviour at each stage and what
g program me for the target market.
understa nding allows the markete r to develop a significant and effective marketin