THE PRINCIPLES
The Shift from Methods to Principles
The chapter begins by establishing that the purpose of the principles stage is to determine how
learning can be effectively encouraged.
Critique of Methods: The document argues that a "method" approach to language teaching (e.g.,
Total Physical Response, Silent Way) is generally avoided by modern practitioners because
various methods often share a "remarkable similarity" in their course item selection and
sequencing. This similarity suggests they may be repeating poorly founded curriculum designs,
sometimes echoing syllabi that predate substantive research (e.g., a modern course using a
structure similar to Berlitz’s 1890s curriculum).
A "method" approach is criticized for resulting in uneven curriculum design; some aspects may be
well-founded, but many others—particularly content and sequencing—are often ignored or
poorly thought out.
Adoption of Principles: The move to a principles-based approach remedies these issues.
Principles are defined as statements about how learning is encouraged, drawn from research,
experience, or theory. They are intended to guide the designer's decisions across all parts of the
curriculum: content, sequencing, form, and evaluation.
The Twenty General Principles of Language Learning and Teaching
The document lists twenty principles, divided into four functional groups, to cover the entire
curriculum design process.
Group 1: Principles Relating to Content and Sequencing (The Syllabus)
These principles focus on the selection and arrangement of the material to be learned.
1. Learner Needs: The content must directly address what the learners need to know and be
able to do. This requires a thorough Needs Analysis to establish relevance and purpose.
2. Prior Knowledge: The course should always build on the learners' existing knowledge
and experience, a fundamental feature of effective learning.
3. Actual Use: The content must align with how the language will be used in the real world.
For example, a course preparing students for professional reading must have a large
component of that specific reading material.
4. Sequencing: The order of material presentation should actively help learning. Effective
sequencing can be achieved by moving from simple to complex, high frequency to low
frequency, or whole concepts to their constituent parts.
5. Repetition: Content must be repeated, as it is a key feature of successful learning.
Repetition should be varied, such as using the material in different skills (listening,
speaking) or different activities, often after a time gap to reinforce memory.
Group 2: Principles Relating to Learning and Teaching Techniques
(Methodology)
These principles dictate the specific instructional and interactional strategies used in the classroom.
6. Interest and Excitement: Learners should be highly engaged. This is driven by the
teacher's enthusiasm and content that is relevant to the learners' interests.
7. Challenge and Discovery: Tasks should be set at an appropriate level—neither too easy
nor too difficult—to encourage active discovery and problem-solving by the learners.
8. Focused Practice: Learners need an appropriate amount of focused practice to consolidate
known items. This practice must be varied and interesting to combat boredom and maintain
effectiveness.
9. Clear Feedback: Learners should receive specific, understandable, and helpful feedback.
This feedback can come from the teacher, other learners, tests, or self-correction.
10. Processing and Use: Learners must have the opportunity to actively process the content
by using it across all four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing).
Group 3: Principles Relating to the Format and Management of the Course
(Organization)
These principles focus on the structural, motivational, and administrative aspects of the course.
11. Supportive Environment: The learning environment must be encouraging, non-
threatening, safe, and cooperative to facilitate risk-taking and learning.
12. Accepted Goals: Learners need to pursue goals that they personally accept and are
interested in to sustain their motivation.
13. Achievable Goals: Goals must be realistic. Short-term goals and sub-goals are
recommended to make the overall learning objective manageable and boost motivation.
14. Working with Other Learners: Collaborative learning through group and pair work is
important to provide varied experiences and expose learners to different ideas.
15. Effective Management: The teacher must act as an effective manager of the learning,
which includes checking learner understanding of instructions, managing time, and
maintaining good classroom control.
Group 4: Principles Relating to the Evaluation of the Course and the Learning
(Assessment and Revision)
These principles govern how the success of both the curriculum and the learners is measured and
used to inform future design.
16. Assessment Reflection: Tests and assessment instruments must accurately reflect the
specific goals of the course. For instance, a test must assess reading fluency if that is the
stated goal, rather than just vocabulary knowledge.
17. Useful Information: Assessments should serve an informative purpose, helping learners
track their progress and providing teachers with data to evaluate teaching effectiveness.
18. Open to Revision: The course design must be flexible. Evaluation is the final step in the
curriculum cycle and must lead to modification and improvement of the course.
19. Comprehensive Course Evaluation: Evaluation of the course itself must be thorough,
covering all components: content, sequencing, teaching techniques, and management.
20. Informal and Formal Assessment: The evaluation of learner progress should utilize a
blend of formal assessment (quizzes and tests) and informal assessment (teacher
observation and quick checks).