Overview
What This Chapter Covers
In previous studies, we noticed role of political parties in:
Rise of democracies
Formation of constitutional designs
Electoral politics
Making and working of governments
In this textbook, we glanced at political parties as:
Vehicles of federal sharing of political power
Negotiators of social divisions in arena of democratic politics
Two Central Questions
1. Why do we need parties?
2. How many parties are good for a democracy?
Then we will:
Introduce national and regional political parties in today's India
Look at what is wrong with political parties
Examine what can be done about it
Why Do We Need Political Parties?
Visibility vs. Popularity
Political parties are:
Easily one of the most visible institutions in a democracy
For most ordinary citizens, democracy is equal to political parties
Even less educated citizens:
May not know anything about Constitution
May not know about nature of government
BUT chances are they would know something about political parties
The Paradox:
This visibility does NOT mean popularity
Most people tend to be very critical of political parties
They tend to blame parties for all that is wrong with democracy and political life
Parties have become identified with social and political divisions
Historical Context
About hundred years ago:
There were few countries of the world that had any political party
Now:
There are few that do NOT have parties
Question: Why did political parties become so omnipresent (present everywhere) in
democracies all over the world?
Meaning of Political Party
Definition
A political party is:
A group of people who come together to:
o Contest elections
o Hold power in the government
They agree on:
Some policies and programmes for the society
With a view to promote the collective good
Since there can be different views:
On what is good for all
Parties try to persuade people why their policies are better than others
They seek to implement these policies by winning popular support through elections
Fundamental Nature
Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in a society
Parties are about a PART of the society:
Thus, involve PARTISANSHIP
Partisan: A person who is strongly committed to a party, group or faction. Partisanship is
marked by a tendency to take a side and inability to take a balanced view on an issue.
A party is known by:
Which part it stands for
Which policies it supports
Whose interests it upholds
Three Components of a Political Party
1. The leaders
2. The active members
3. The followers
Functions of Political Parties
What Does a Political Party Do?
Basically: Political parties fill political offices and exercise political power
Parties do so by performing a series of functions:
Function 1: Contest Elections
In most democracies:
Elections are fought mainly among candidates put up by political parties
Candidate Selection Methods
In some countries (like USA):
Members and supporters of a party choose its candidates
Now more and more countries are following this method
In other countries (like India):
Top party leaders choose candidates for contesting elections
Function 2: Put Forward Policies and Programmes
Each of us may have:
Different opinions and views on what policies are suitable for society
But:
No government can handle such a large variety of views
In a democracy:
A large number of similar opinions have to be grouped together
To provide a direction in which policies can be formulated by governments
This is what the parties do
A party:
Reduces a vast multitude of opinions into a few basic positions which it supports
A government is expected to base its policies on the line taken by the ruling party
Ruling Party: Political party that runs government.
Function 3: Make Laws for a Country
Formally:
Laws are debated and passed in the legislature
But:
Since most of the members belong to a party
They go by the direction of the party leadership
Irrespective of their personal opinions
Therefore:
Parties play a decisive role in making laws
Function 4: Form and Run Governments
The big policy decisions are taken by:
Political executive that comes from the political parties
Parties:
Recruit leaders
Train them
Then make them ministers to run the government in the way they want
Function 5: Role of Opposition
Those parties that lose in the elections:
Play the role of opposition to the parties in power
Opposition parties:
Voice different views
Criticise government for its failures or wrong policies
Mobilise opposition to the government
Function 6: Shape Public Opinion
Parties:
Raise and highlight issues
Have lakhs of members and activists spread all over the country
Many of the pressure groups:
Are the extensions of political parties among different sections of society
Parties sometimes:
Launch movements for the resolution of problems faced by people
Often:
Opinions in the society crystallise on the lines parties take
Function 7: Provide Access to Government
Parties provide people:
Access to government machinery
Access to welfare schemes implemented by governments
For an ordinary citizen:
It is easy to approach a local party leader than a government officer
That is why:
They feel close to parties even when they do not fully trust them
Parties have to be:
Responsive to people's needs and demands
Otherwise people can reject those parties in the next elections
Necessity of Political Parties
Why Modern Democracies Cannot Exist Without Parties
Imagine a situation without parties:
1. Every candidate in elections will be independent
o So no one will be able to make any promises to the people about any major
policy changes
2. Government may be formed:
o But its utility will remain ever uncertain
3. Elected representatives will be accountable:
o To their constituency for what they do in the locality
o But no one will be responsible for how the country will be run
Evidence from Non-Party Elections
Non-party based elections to the panchayat in many states:
Although parties do not contest formally:
It is generally noticed that the village gets split into more than one faction
Each of which puts up a 'panel' of its candidates
This is exactly what the party does
Universal Presence
That is the reason:
We find political parties in almost all countries of the world
Whether these countries are:
o Big or small
o Old or new
o Developed or developing
Link Between Parties and Democracy
The rise of political parties is:
Directly linked to the emergence of representative democracies
As societies became large and complex:
They needed some agency to gather different views on various issues
And to present these to the government
They needed:
Some ways to bring various representatives together
So that a responsible government could be formed
They needed a mechanism to:
Support or restrain the government
Make policies
Justify or oppose them
Political parties fulfill these needs:
That every representative government has
We can say that:
Parties are a necessary condition for a democracy
How Many Parties Should We Have?
Freedom to Form Parties
In a democracy:
Any group of citizens is free to form a political party
In formal sense:
There are a large number of political parties in each country
More than 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission of India
But:
Not all these parties are serious contenders in the elections
Usually only a handful of parties are effectively in the race to win elections and form
government
Question: How many major or effective parties are good for a democracy?
One-Party System
Characteristics
In some countries:
Only one party is allowed to control and run the government
These are called one-party systems
Example: China
Only the Communist Party is allowed to rule
Although, legally speaking:
People are free to form political parties
It does not happen because:
o The electoral system does not permit free competition for power
Assessment
We cannot consider one-party system as a good option because:
This is NOT a democratic option
Any democratic system must:
Allow at least two parties to compete in elections
Provide a fair chance for the competing parties to come to power
Two-Party System
Characteristics
In some countries:
Power usually changes between two main parties
Several other parties may:
Exist
Contest elections
Win a few seats in the national legislatures
But:
Only the two main parties have a serious chance of:
o Winning majority of seats
o Forming government
Examples
United States of America
United Kingdom
Multiparty System
Characteristics
If several parties compete for power:
And more than two parties have a reasonable chance of:
o Coming to power on their own strength
o OR in alliance with others
We call it a multiparty system
In India:
We have a multiparty system
In this system:
The government is formed by various parties coming together in a coalition
Alliances/Fronts
When several parties join hands:
For the purpose of contesting elections and winning power
It is called an alliance or a front
Example: India 2004 parliamentary elections
Three major alliances:
1. National Democratic Alliance (NDA)
2. United Progressive Alliance (UPA)
3. Left Front
Assessment
Advantages:
Allows a variety of interests and opinions to enjoy political representation
Disadvantages:
Often appears very messy
Leads to political instability
Which System is Better?
Not the Right Question
Perhaps the best answer is:
This is not a very good question
Why?
Party system is not something any country can choose:
It evolves over a long time, depending on:
Nature of society
Its social and regional divisions
Its history of politics
Its system of elections
These cannot be changed very quickly
Each Country is Different
Each country develops:
A party system that is conditioned by its special circumstances
Example: India
India has evolved a multiparty system because:
o The social and geographical diversity in such a large country
o Is not easily absorbed by two or even three parties
No system is ideal for all countries and all situations
Popular Participation in Political Parties
Common Belief vs. Reality
Common belief:
Political parties are facing a crisis
They are very unpopular
Citizens are indifferent to political parties
Reality (Evidence from surveys):
This belief is only partly true for India
Survey Findings
Evidence based on:
A series of large sample surveys conducted over several decades
Key Findings:
Finding 1: Low Trust Globally
Political parties do NOT enjoy much trust:
Among the people in South Asia
The proportion of those who say their trust in political parties is 'not much' or 'not at
all'
Is more than those who have 'some' or 'great' trust
The same is true:
Of most other democracies as well
Political parties are one of the least trusted institutions all over the world
Finding 2: High Participation in India
Yet:
The level of participation in the activities of political parties was fairly high
The proportion of those who said:
They were members of some political party
Was higher in India than many advanced countries like:
o Canada
o Japan
o Spain
o South Korea
Finding 3: Rising Membership
Over the last three decades:
The proportion of those who report to be members of political parties in India
Has gone up steadily
Finding 4: Feeling Close to Parties
The proportion of those:
Who say they feel 'close to a political party'
Has also gone up in India in this period
National Parties
Two Kinds of Political Parties
Democracies that follow a federal system:
Tend to have two kinds of political parties:
1. Parties present in only one of the federal units
2. Parties present in several or all units of the federation
This is the case in India as well
What are National Parties?
There are some country-wide parties:
Called 'national parties'
These parties:
Have their units in various states
But by and large, all these units follow the same policies, programmes and strategy
That is decided at the national level
Registration and Recognition of Parties
Registration
Every party in the country:
Has to register with the Election Commission
Special Facilities for Recognized Parties
While the Commission treats all parties equally:
It offers some special facilities to large and established parties
These parties are given:
A unique symbol
Only the official candidates of that party can use that election symbol
Parties that get this privilege:
And some other special facilities
Are 'recognised' by the Election Commission
Called 'recognised political parties'
Criteria for Recognition
As a State Party
A party that:
Secures at least six per cent of the total votes
In an election to the Legislative Assembly of a State
AND wins at least two seats
Is recognised as a State party
As a National Party
A party that:
Secures at least six per cent of the total votes in Lok Sabha elections OR Assembly
elections in four States
AND wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha
Is recognised as a national party
Current Status
According to this classification:
There are six recognized national parties in the country
As per notification of the Election Commission of India issued in 2023
National Party 1: Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)
Formation
Formed: 26 November 2012
Background:
Following the 2011 anti-corruption movement
Ideology and Principles
Party was founded on the idea of:
Accountability
Clean administration
Transparency
Good governance
Electoral Performance
In the year after its formation:
AAP emerged as the second largest party in the Delhi Legislative Assembly election
It formed a government with the support of Indian National Congress (INC)
Gujarat:
Emerged as the third front in the politics of Gujarat
After 2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election
Presently:
AAP formed governments in:
o Punjab
o Delhi
Lok Sabha election 2019:
Secured one seat in the Lok Sabha
National Party 2: Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
Formation
Formed: 1984
Under the leadership of: Kanshi Ram
Ideology and Objectives
Seeks to:
Represent and secure power for the bahujan samaj which includes:
o The dalits
o Adivasis
o OBCs
o Religious minorities
Draws inspiration from:
Ideas and teachings of:
o Sahu Maharaj
o Mahatma Phule
o Periyar Ramaswami Naicker
o Babasaheb Ambedkar
Stands for:
The cause of securing the interests and welfare
Of the dalits and oppressed people
Regional Presence
Main base:
State of Uttar Pradesh
Substantial presence in:
Madhya Pradesh
Chhattisgarh
Uttarakhand
Delhi
Punjab
Formed government:
In Uttar Pradesh several times
By taking the support of different parties at different times
Electoral Performance
Lok Sabha elections 2019:
Polled about 3.63 per cent votes
Secured 10 seats in the Lok Sabha
National Party 3: Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
Formation
Founded: 1980
Background:
By reviving the erstwhile Bharatiya Jana Sangh
Formed by Syama Prasad Mukherjee in 1951
Ideology and Vision
Wants to:
Build a strong and modern India
By drawing inspiration from:
o India's ancient culture and values
o Deendayal Upadhyaya's ideas of:
Integral humanism
Antyodaya
Cultural nationalism (or 'Hindutva'):
Is an important element in its conception of:
o Indian nationhood
o Politics
Key Policy Positions
Wants:
1. Full territorial and political integration of Jammu and Kashmir with India
2. A uniform civil code for all people living in the country irrespective of religion
3. Ban on religious conversions
Electoral Growth
Support base:
Increased substantially in the 1990s
Earlier:
Limited to north and west
And to urban areas
Expansion:
The party expanded its support in:
o The south
o East
o The north-east
o To rural areas
Government Formation
Came to power:
In 1998 as the leader of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA)
Including several regional parties
2019 Lok Sabha elections:
Emerged as the largest party with 303 members
Currently:
Leads the ruling NDA government at the Centre
National Party 4: Communist Party of India - Marxist (CPI-
M)
Formation
Founded: 1964
Ideology
Believes in:
Marxism-Leninism
Supports:
Socialism
Secularism
Democracy
Opposes:
Imperialism
Communalism
Accepts:
Democratic elections as a useful and helpful means
For securing the objective of socio-economic justice in India
Regional Strength
Enjoys strong support in:
West Bengal
Kerala
Tripura
Especially among:
The poor
Factory workers
Farmers
Agricultural labourers
The intelligentsia
Policy Position
Critical of:
The new economic policies
That allow free flow of foreign capital and goods into the country
Government Formation
Was in power:
In West Bengal without a break for 34 years
Electoral Performance
2019 Lok Sabha elections:
Won about 1.75 per cent of votes
3 seats
National Party 5: Indian National Congress (INC)
Formation and History
Founded: 1885
Popularly known as: The Congress Party
One of:
The oldest parties of the world
Has experienced:
Many splits
Historical Role
Played a dominant role:
In Indian politics at the national and state level
For several decades after India's Independence
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru:
The party sought to build a modern secular democratic republic in India
Government Formation
Ruling party at the centre:
Till 1977
Then from 1980 to 1989
After 1989:
Its support declined
But it continues to be present throughout the country
Cutting across social divisions
United Progressive Alliance (UPA):
Leader of the UPA government from 2004 to 2019
Ideological Orientation
A centrist party:
Neither rightist nor leftist
In its ideological orientation
The party espouses:
Secularism
Welfare of weaker sections and minorities
Supports:
New economic reforms
But with a human face
Electoral Performance
2019 Lok Sabha election:
Won 19.5% votes
52 seats
National Party 6: National People's Party (NPP)
Formation
Formed: July 2013
Under the leadership of: P.A Sangma
Historic Significance
NPP is:
The first political party from North East India
To have attained the status of a national party
Ideology and Philosophy
Believes in:
Diversity of the country
Recognizes that different regions have different developmental challenges
Core philosophy:
Education and employment to all
Empowerment of all sections of the society
Regional Presence
Formed government in:
Meghalaya
Has presence in:
Many of North Eastern States
Electoral Performance
Lok Sabha election 2019:
Secured one seat in the Lok Sabha
State Parties (Regional Parties)
Definition
Other than the national parties:
Most of the major parties of the country are classified by the Election Commission as
'State parties'
Commonly referred to as regional parties
Yet:
These parties need not be regional in their ideology or outlook
Types of State Parties
Some of these parties:
Are all India parties that happen to have succeeded only in some states
Example: Samajwadi Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal
o Have national level political organisation
o With units in several states
Some of these parties:
Are conscious about their State identity
Example:
o Biju Janata Dal
o Sikkim Democratic Front
o Mizo National Front
o Telangana Rashtra Samithi
Growing Importance of State Parties
Expansion Over Three Decades
Over the last three decades:
The number and strength of these parties has expanded
This made:
The Parliament of India politically more and more diverse
Impact on National Politics
Until 2014:
No one national party is able to secure on its own a majority in the Lok Sabha
As a result:
The national parties are compelled to form alliances with State parties
Since 1996:
Nearly every one of the State parties
Has got an opportunity to be a part of one or the other national level coalition
government
Contribution to Democracy
This has contributed to:
The strengthening of federalism and democracy in our country
Challenges to Political Parties
Context
We have seen:
How crucial political parties are for the working of democracy
Since:
Parties are the most visible face of democracy
It is natural that people blame parties for whatever is wrong with the working of
democracy
Universal Problem
All over the world:
People express strong dissatisfaction
With the failure of political parties to perform their functions well
This is the case in our country too
Four Problem Areas
Popular dissatisfaction and criticism has focussed on:
Political parties need to:
Face and overcome these challenges
In order to remain effective instruments of democracy
Challenge 1: Lack of Internal Democracy
The Problem
All over the world:
There is a tendency in political parties towards the concentration of power
In one or few leaders at the top
Manifestations
Parties do not:
Keep membership registers
Hold organisational meetings
Conduct internal elections regularly
Ordinary members:
Do not get sufficient information on what happens inside the party
Do not have the means or the connections needed to influence the decisions
Consequences
As a result:
The leaders assume greater power to make decisions in the name of the party
Since one or few leaders exercise paramount power:
Those who disagree with the leadership
Find it difficult to continue in the party
More than loyalty to party principles and policies:
Personal loyalty to the leader becomes more important
Challenge 2: Dynastic Succession
The Problem
Related to the first challenge
Since most political parties:
Do not practice open and transparent procedures for their functioning
There are:
Very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party
Consequences
Those who happen to be the leaders:
Are in a position of unfair advantage
To favour people close to them or even their family members
In many parties:
The top positions are always controlled by members of one family
Why It's Problematic
This is unfair to:
Other members of that party
This is also bad for democracy:
Since people who do not have adequate experience or popular support
Come to occupy positions of power
Global Presence
This tendency is present:
In some measure all over the world
Including in some of the older democracies
Challenge 3: Money and Muscle Power
The Problem
Growing role of:
Money and muscle power in parties
Especially during elections
Consequences
Since parties are focussed only on winning elections:
They tend to use short-cuts to win elections
They tend to nominate:
Those candidates who have or can raise lots of money
Rich people and companies:
Who give funds to the parties
Tend to have influence on the policies and decisions of the party
In some cases:
Parties support criminals who can win elections
Global Concern
Democrats all over the world are worried about:
The increasing role of rich people and big companies in democratic politics
Challenge 4: No Meaningful Choice
The Problem
Very often:
Parties do not seem to offer a meaningful choice to the voters
In order to offer meaningful choice:
Parties must be significantly different
Recent Trends
In recent years:
There has been a decline in the ideological differences among parties
In most parts of the world
Example: Britain
The difference between the Labour Party and the Conservative Party is very little
They agree on more fundamental aspects
But differ only in details on how policies are to be framed and implemented
In India
In our country too:
The differences among all the major parties on the economic policies have reduced
Those who want really different policies:
Have no option available to them
Sometimes:
People cannot even elect very different leaders
Because the same set of leaders keep shifting from one party to another
How Can Parties Be Reformed?
The Central Question
In order to face these challenges:
Political parties need to be reformed
The question is:
Are political parties willing to reform?
If they are willing, what has prevented them from reforming so far?
If they are not willing, is it possible to force them to reform?
The Dilemma
Citizens all over the world face this question
This is not a simple question to answer:
In a democracy:
The final decision is made by leaders who represent political parties
People can replace them:
But only by another set of party leaders
If all of them do not wish to reform:
How can anyone force them to change?
Recent Efforts and Suggestions for Reform
Legal Reforms Already Implemented
Reform 1: Anti-Defection Law
The Constitution was amended:
To prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties
Defection: Changing party allegiance from the party on which a person got elected (to a
legislative body) to a different party.
Reason:
Many elected representatives were indulging in defection
In order to become ministers or for cash rewards
The New Law Says:
If any MLA or MP changes parties
He or she will lose the seat in the legislature
Impact
This new law has:
Helped bring defection down
At the same time:
This has made any dissent even more difficult
MPs and MLAs have to accept whatever the party leaders decide
Reform 2: Supreme Court Order on Transparency
The Supreme Court passed an order:
To reduce the influence of money and criminals
Now, it is mandatory:
For every candidate who contests elections
To file an affidavit giving details of:
o His property
o Criminal cases pending against him
Affidavit: A signed document submitted to an officer, where a person makes a sworn statement
regarding her personal information.
Impact
The new system has:
Made a lot of information available to the public
But:
There is no system to check if the information given by the candidates is true
As yet:
We do not know if it has led to decline in the influence of the rich and the criminals
Reform 3: Election Commission Order
The Election Commission passed an order:
Making it necessary for political parties to:
o Hold their organisational elections
o File their income tax returns
Impact
The parties have started doing so:
But sometimes it is mere formality
It is not clear:
If this step has led to greater internal democracy in political parties
Suggestions for Further Reform
Suggestion 1: Regulate Internal Affairs
A law should be made:
To regulate the internal affairs of political parties
It should be made compulsory for political parties to:
Maintain a register of its members
Follow its own constitution
Have an independent authority
To act as a judge in case of party disputes
Hold open elections to the highest posts
Suggestion 2: Quota for Women
It should be made mandatory:
For political parties to give a minimum number of tickets
About one-third, to women candidates
Similarly:
There should be a quota for women
In the decision making bodies of the party
Suggestion 3: State Funding of Elections
The government should:
Give parties money to support their election expenses
This support could be given:
In kind:
Petrol, paper, telephone, etc.
OR
In cash:
On the basis of the votes secured by the party in the last election
Status of These Suggestions
These suggestions have NOT yet been accepted:
By political parties
If and when these are accepted:
These could lead to some improvement
Caution About Legal Solutions
But we must be very careful:
About legal solutions to political problems
Over-regulation of political parties:
Can be counter-productive
This would force all parties to find ways to cheat the law
Besides:
Political parties will not agree to pass a law that they do not like
Two Other Ways to Reform Parties
Way 1: People Can Put Pressure
People can put pressure on political parties
This can be done through:
Petitions
Publicity
Agitations
Who can play a role:
Ordinary citizens
Pressure groups and movements
The media
If political parties feel:
That they would lose public support by not taking up reforms
They would become more serious about reforms
Way 2: Join Political Parties
Political parties can improve if:
Those who want this, join political parties
The quality of democracy:
Depends on the degree of public participation
It is difficult to reform politics if:
Ordinary citizens do not take part in it
And simply criticise it from the outside
The problem of bad politics:
Can be solved by more and better politics
Key Terms and Concepts
Political Party: A group of people who come together to contest elections and hold
power in the government
Partisan: A person who is strongly committed to a party, group or faction. Partisanship is
marked by a tendency to take a side and inability to take a balanced view on an issue
Ruling Party: Political party that runs government
Opposition: Parties that lose in elections and voice different views and criticise
government
One-Party System: Only one party is allowed to control and run the government (NOT
democratic)
Two-Party System: Power usually changes between two main parties
Multiparty System: Several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a
reasonable chance of coming to power
Alliance/Front: When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose
of contesting elections and winning power
Coalition: Government formed by various parties coming together
National Party: Country-wide party with units in various states, following same policies
decided at national level
State Party/Regional Party: Party classified by Election Commission that has succeeded
in some states
Recognized Political Party: Party that gets special facilities from Election Commission
based on criteria of votes and seats
Defection: Changing party allegiance from the party on which a person got elected (to a
legislative body) to a different party
Affidavit: A signed document submitted to an officer, where a person makes a sworn
statement regarding her personal information
Important Statistics and Facts
Registered Parties in India: More than 750 parties registered with Election Commission
Recognized National Parties (2023): 6 parties
1. Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)
2. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
3. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
4. Communist Party of India - Marxist (CPI-M)
5. Indian National Congress (INC)
6. National People's Party (NPP)
Criteria for State Party:
At least 6% of total votes in State Assembly election
AND at least 2 seats won
Criteria for National Party:
At least 6% of total votes in Lok Sabha elections OR Assembly elections in 4 States
AND at least 4 seats in Lok Sabha
BJP Performance (2019): 303 seats in Lok Sabha (largest party)
INC Performance (2019): 19.5% votes, 52 seats
BSP Performance (2019): 3.63% votes, 10 seats
CPI-M Performance (2019): 1.75% votes, 3 seats
AAP Performance (2019): 1 seat in Lok Sabha
NPP Performance (2019): 1 seat in Lok Sabha
CPI-M in West Bengal: In power for 34 years without a break
Major Alliances (2004):
National Democratic Alliance (NDA)
United Progressive Alliance (UPA)
Left Front
Party Membership in India: Higher than many advanced countries like Canada, Japan, Spain
and South Korea
Trust in Parties: Political parties are one of the least trusted institutions all over the world, yet
participation is high in India