Research methods (I)

Key terms Time scale

Research question/ hypothesis: Cross-sectional study: Research that is taken at one point
What the researcher wants to find out. and shows a ‘snapshot’ of what society is like at a certain
Mixed methods: Research that uses time – most research is like this (although some studies
quantitative data to show patterns, and are repeated to identify and measure changes).
qualitative data to show more detail. Longitudinal study: Research that follows a group over a
long period of time, e.g. the ‘Seven-up’ series on ITV which
Types of data started with a group of 7 years olds and revisits them every
Quantitative: Statistical data 7 years.
that is in numbers and can be
presented in tables and graphs. Pilot studies Need to consider
Qualitative: Data that is in words A pre-test for the research Reliability: Can the research be repeated
and has lots of detail, helping to so you can practise the with different participants and gain a
give context. methods, to secure funding similar result? *Questionnaires tend to
Primary: Research information that for research and to work out have highest reliability.
sociologists have collected themselves – the practical issues (e.g. time/cost). Validity: How accurate is the data that
researcher has more control over the data Less common with qualitative research, has been collected – how deep an insight
collected and can tailor it to exactly what but essential to quantitative research to does it provide? *Participant observation
they want, but can be expensive and time- check questions. unstructured interview tend to have the
consuming Potential issues with questionnaires: highest validity.
Secondary: Information that has been • Replies given were not Representativeness: Does the sample
collected by someone else for another what the researcher was include a wide range of characteristics
purpose – cheaper/easier as it’s already hoping for that are been in the general population?
available, but might not be exactly what is • Respondents didn’t feel If not the results will be too generalised,
wanted and is often out-of-date. comfortable answering and therefore won’t answer hypothesis properly.
• Official statistics – e.g. from police, courts, sensitive questions straight away Ethics: The rules to follow so that a piece
hospitals, or UK Census • Questions may be have been of research or the way it is conducted is
• Unofficial – e.g. from charities or private misunderstood (unclear/ambiguous), or morally right, e.g. anonymity, confidentiality,
companies (can be biased to suit purpose) include unfamiliar terminology. informed content, protection from harm.

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Research methods (II)
sampling Content analysis
Target population: Group of Quantitative method used to analyse mass media, e.g. tally chart
people researcher wants to study. to measure the number and type of gender roles on TV adverts.
Sample: Small section of the population Useful for measuring key themes show in the media, e.g. media
selected for research purposes. bias of reporting global events.
Sampling frame: List of potential
participants, e.g. electoral role. questionnaires interviews Observation
Random sample: Where everyone in the Series of questions Conversation Where researcher
has the same chance of being selected. used to find out about between researcher observes the
Systematic sample: Follows a specific rule an issue – most widely and respondent. behaviour of a group.
to get an unbiased sample, e.g. every 10th used research method. Structured interviews: Prepared Overt: Participants are aware
person on a register. Closed questions: One word list of question, which are the are being observed – but
Stratified sample: Divides sample frame answers or categories to tick. standardised so all interviews can lead to Hawthorne Effect
into smaller groups, e.g. age, social class, Open questions: So respondents are the same – even if different (change of behaviour).
and then draws at random from these to develop their ideas. interviewers are being used. Covert: Participants unaware
groups to increase representativeness. Advantages: Unstructured interviews: No pre- they are being observed –
Opportunistic sample: Using the people • Generate large amounts of data planned questions so can gain most sociologists prefer this
who are available at the time. • Quick and cheap way of detail (high validity) – but more as observations are likely to
Quota sample: Including a certain number collecting data (especially difficult to repeat so less reliable. me more truthful.
of people from certain groups to increase online) Semi-structured interviews: Participant: Researcher
representativeness, e.g. 25% of sample • Respondents usually complete Some pre-planned questions but interacts with group being
must be under the age of 30. them independently – no need also flexibility to adapt questions observed – but can become
Snowballing sample: Used for smaller for team of interviewers to probe further if needed. too involved/influence group.
groups who are difficult to access – the Disadvantages: Trust rapport: Build-up of trust Non-participant: Researcher
research uses one contact to introduce • Questions can be interpreted between researcher and observes from a distance.
them to a second, and so on. differently or lack detail – respondent – important when BUT, studies are difficult to
Unrepresentative sample: Only uses a compromises validity talking to vulnerable people. repeat, and sample size is
specific group of people so can not be • Can have a low response rate BUT, time-consuming and costly, usually too small to be
generalised to others outside of the study. (particularly postage surveys) interviewers need training. representative.

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