PART II
Electronics
Is a branch of engineering that deals with the study of design, working, and applications of
electronic devices and circuits. Electronic devices are those whose operation is based on the flow
of electrons and holes. Electronic devices are also referred to as Solid-state Electronics involves
the design and engineering of these semiconductor-based devices. Therefore, electronics is also
termed as solid-state engineering. Electronics devices are used to perform a variety of functions
like data processing, signal amplification, information transmission, controlling of electrical
energy flow in circuits, and many more.
Electronics finds applications in various engineering and industrial disciplines such as
communication, computer engineering, information technology, control and automation, power
electronics, consumer electronics, etc
In modern society and industry, electronics is an integral part of simple household appliances to
large scale communication systems and power distribution. Therefore, understanding the
principles of electronics and operations of electronic devices is very important to take complete
benefits of modern technologies.
Due to the intermixing of atoms in solids, instead of single energy levels, there will be bands of
energy levels formed. These set of energy levels, which are closely packed are called as Energy
bands.
1) Valance Band
The electrons move in the atoms in certain energy levels but the energy of the electrons in the
innermost shell is higher than the outermost shell electrons. The electrons that are present in the
outermost shell are called as Valance Electrons.
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These valance electrons, containing a series of energy levels, form an energy band which is
called as Valence Band. The valence band is the band having the highest occupied energy.
2) Conduction Band
The valence electrons are so loosely attached to the nucleus that even at room temperature, few
of the valence electrons leave the band to be free. These are called as free electrons as they tend
to move towards the neighboring atoms.
These free electrons are the ones which conduct the current in a conductor and hence called as
Conduction Electrons. The band which contains conduction electrons is called as Conduction
Band. The conduction band is the band having the lowest occupied energy.
3) Forbidden gap
The gap between valence band and conduction band is called as forbidden energy gap. As the
name implies, this band is the forbidden one without energy. Hence no electron stays in this
band. The valence electrons, while going to the conduction band, pass through this.
The forbidden energy gap if greater, means that the valence band electrons are tightly bound to
the nucleus. Now, in order to push the electrons out of the valence band, some external energy is
required, which would be equal to the forbidden energy gap.
The following figure shows the valance band, conduction band, and the forbidden gap.
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Depending upon the size of the forbidden gap, the Insulators, the Semiconductors and the
Conductors are formed.
A) Insulators
Insulators are such materials in which the conduction cannot take place, due to the large
forbidden gap. Examples: Wood, Rubber. The structure of energy bands in Insulators is as shown
in the following figure.
Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Insulators.
✓ The Forbidden energy gap is very large.
✓ Valance band electrons are bound tightly to atoms.
✓ The value of forbidden energy gap for an insulator will be of 10eV.
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✓ For some insulators, as the temperature increases, they might show some conduction.
B)Semiconductors
Semiconductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap is small and the
conduction takes place if some external energy is applied. Examples: Silicon,
Germanium. The following figure shows the structure of energy bands in
semiconductors.
Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Semiconductors.
✓ The Forbidden energy gap is very small.
✓ The forbidden gap for Ge is 0.7eV whereas for Si is 1.1eV.
✓ A Semiconductor actually is neither an insulator, nor a good conductor.
✓ As the temperature increases, the conductivity of a semiconductor increases
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C) Conductors
Conductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap disappears as the
valence band and conduction band become very close that they overlap. Examples:
Copper, Aluminum. The following figure shows the structure of energy bands in
conductors.
Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Conductors.
✓ There exists no forbidden gap in a conductor.
✓ The valance band and the conduction band gets overlapped.
✓ The free electrons available for conduction are plenty.
✓ A slight increase in voltage, increases the conduction.
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✓ There is no concept of hole formation, as a continuous flow of electrons
contribute the current.
Important Terms
There is a necessity to discuss a few important terms here before we move on to subsequent
chapters
1. Current It is simply the flow of electrons. A continuous flow of electrons or charged
particles, can be termed as Current. It is indicated by I or i. It is measured in Amperes. This
can be alternating current AC or direct current DC.
2. Voltage It is the potential difference. When there occurs a difference in potentialities,
between two points, there is said to be a voltage difference, measured between those two
points. It is indicated by V. It is measured in Volts.
3. Resistance It is the property of opposing the flow of electrons. The possession of this
property can be termed as resistivity. This will be discussed later in detail.
Ohms Law
With the terms discussed above, we have a standard law, which is very crucial for the
behavior of all the electronic components, called as Ohms Law. This states the relation
between current and voltage in an ideal conductor.
According to Ohms law, the potential difference across an ideal conductor is proportional
to the current through it.
𝑉𝛼 𝐼
An ideal conductor has no resistance. But in practice, every conductor has some
resistance in it. As the resistance increases, the potential drop also increases and hence
the voltage increases.
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Hence the voltage drop is directly proportional to the resistance it offers.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
But the current is inversely proportional to the resistance.
𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅
Hence, in practice, an Ohms law can be stated as −
According to Ohms law, the current flowing through a conductor is proportional to the
potential difference across it, and is inversely proportional to the resistance it offers.
This law is helpful in determining the values of unknown parameters among the three
which help to analyze a circuit.
Basic Electronics – Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between the conductors and insulators. The
property of resistivity is not the only one that decides a material as a semiconductor, but it has
few properties as follows.
Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than insulators and more than conductors.
Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The resistance in semiconductors,
increases with the decrease in temperature and vice versa.
The Conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when a suitable metallic impurity is
added to it, which is a very important property.
Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics. The transistor has
replaced the bulky vacuum tubes, from which the size and cost of the devices got decreased and
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this revolution has kept on increasing its pace leading to the new inventions like integrated
electronics. The following illustration shows the classification of semiconductors.
Conduction in Semiconductors
After having some knowledge on the electrons, we came to know that the outermost shell has the
valence electrons which are loosely attached to the nucleus. Such an atom, having valence
electrons when brought close to the other atom, the valence electrons of both these atoms
combine to form Electron pairs. This bonding is not so very strong and hence it is a Covalent
bond.
For example, a germanium atom has 32 electrons. 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 in second orbit, 18
in third orbit, while 4 in last orbit. These 4 electrons are valence electrons of germanium atom.
These electrons tend to combine with valence electrons of adjoining atoms, to form the electron
pairs, as shown in the following figure.
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Creation of Hole
Due to the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, some electrons tend to move out of their place
and break the covalent bonds. These broken covalent bonds, result in free electrons which
wander randomly. But the moved away electrons creates an empty space or valence behind,
which is called as a hole.
This hole which represents a missing electron can be considered as a unit positive charge while
the electron is considered as a unit negative charge. The liberated electrons move randomly but
when some external electric field is applied, these electrons move in opposite direction to the
applied field. But the holes created due to absence of electrons, move in the direction of applied
field.
Hole Current
It is already understood that when a covalent bond is broken, a hole is created. Actually, there is
a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to form a covalent bond. So, a hole doesnt tend to
exist in a crystal. This can be better understood by the following figure, showing a
semiconductor crystal lattice.
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An electron, when gets shifted from a place A, a hole is formed. Due to the tendency for the
formation of covalent bond, an electron from B gets shifted to A. Now, again to balance the
covalent bond at B, an electron gets shifted from C to B. This continues to build a path. This
movement of hole in the absence of an applied field is random. But when electric field is applied,
the hole drifts along the applied field, which constitutes the hole current. This is called as hole
current but not electron current because, the movement of holes contribute the current flow.
Electrons and holes while in random motion, may encounter with each other, to form pairs. This
recombination results in the release of heat, which breaks another covalent bond. When the
temperature increases, the rate of generation of electrons and holes increase, thus rate of
recombination increases, which results in the increase of densities of electrons and holes. As a
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result, conductivity of semiconductor increases and resistivity decreases, which means the
negative temperature coefficient.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor. The
properties of this pure semiconductor are as follows −
✓ The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation.
✓ The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
✓ The conduction capability is small at room temperature.
In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add some
impurities. This process of adding impurities is called as Doping. Now, this doped intrinsic
semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Doping
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as doping. The
impurities added, are generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities.
Pentavalent Impurities
The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons in the outer most orbit.
Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus
The pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it donates one electron to the conduction
band of pure semiconductor atom.
Trivalent Impurities
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The trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence electrons in the outer most orbit.
Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, Boron
The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the
semiconductor atom.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor is called as an
extrinsic semiconductor. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending upon the
type of impurity added. They are N-type extrinsic semiconductor and P-Type extrinsic
semiconductor.
N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in Ntype
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 5 valence electrons.
For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the valence electrons get
attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains as a free electron. This is as shown in the
following figure.
All of these free electrons constitute electron current. Hence, the impurity when added to pure
semiconductor, provides electrons for conduction.
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✓ In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through electrons, the electrons
are majority carriers and the holes are minority carriers.
✓ As there is no addition of positive or negative charges, the electrons are electrically neutral.
✓ When an electric field is applied to an N-type semiconductor, to which a pentavalent impurity is
added, the free electrons travel towards positive electrode. This is called as negative or N-type
conductivity.
P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in P-type
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 3 valence electrons. For example, if Boron
atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the valence electrons get attached with the Ge
atoms, to form three covalent bonds. But, one more electron in germanium remains without
forming any bond. As there is no electron in boron remaining to form a covalent bond, the space
is treated as a hole. This is as shown in the following figure.
The boron impurity when added in a small amount, provides a number of holes which
helps in the conduction. All of these holes constitute hole current.
✓ In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through holes, the
holes are majority carriers while the electrons are minority carriers.
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✓ The impurity added here provides holes which are called as acceptors, because they
accept electrons from the germanium atoms.
✓ As the number of mobile holes remains equal to the number of acceptors, the Ptype
semiconductor remains electrically neutral.
✓ When an electric field is applied to a P-type semiconductor, to which a trivalent
impurity is added, the holes travel towards negative electrode, but with a slow pace
than electrons. This is called as P-type conductivity.
✓ In this P-type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one covalent bond to
another, unlike N-type.
Why Silicon is Preferred in Semiconductors?
Among the semiconductor materials like germanium and silicon, the extensively used
material for manufacturing various electronic components is Silicon
. Silicon is preferred over germanium for many reasons such as −
✓ The energy band gap is 0.7ev, whereas it is 0.2ev for germanium.
✓ The thermal pair generation is smaller.
✓ The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in the manufacture
of many components along with integration technology.
✓ Si is easily found in nature than Ge.
✓ Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.
Hence, Silicon is used in the manufacture of many electronic components, which are
used to make different circuits for various purposes. These components have individual
properties and particular uses.
The main electronic components include Resistors, variable resistors, Capacitors,
variable capacitors, Inductors, diodes, Tunnel diodes, Varactor diodes, Transistors,
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BJTs, UJTs, FETs, MOSFETs, LDR, LED, Solar cells, Thermistor, Varistor,
Transformer,
Basic Electronics - Resistors
Resist is the word which means to oppose. Resistance is the property of opposing the flow of
electrons, in a conductor or a semiconductor. A Resistor is an electronic component which has
the property of resistance.
Symbol and Units
The symbol for a Resistor is as shown below.
The units of resistance is Ohms, which is indicated by Ω omega
.
The formula for resistance is
R = V/I
Where V is Voltage and I is Current. It would really be difficult to manufacture the
resistors with each and every value. Hence, few values are chosen and the resistors of
such values are only manufactured. These are called as Preferred Values. In practice,
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the resistors with near values are chosen to match the required applications. This is how
a practical resistor looks like –
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Basic Electronics - Diodes
After having known about various components, let us focus on another
important component in the field of electronics, known as a Diode. A
semiconductor diode is a two terminal electronic component with a PN
junction. This is also called as a Rectifier.
The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and the
cathode, which is the negative terminal is represented with K. To know the anode and
cathode of a practical diode, a fine line is drawn on the diode which means cathode,
while the other end represents anode.
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As we had already discussed about the P-type and N-type semiconductors, and the
behavior of their carriers, let us now try to join these materials together to see what
happens.
Formation of a Diode
If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to
form a junction, as shown in the figure below.
A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material has
electrons as the majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend
to go to n-side, whereas few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.
As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with each
other to neutralize and forms ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where the
positive and negative ions are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier as
shown in the figure.
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The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the
formation of a narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is
now free from movable charge carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and
maintain a region of space between them without any charge carriers.
As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called as
Barrier junction. This has another name called as Depletion region meaning it depletes
both the regions. There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions,
across the junction called as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes
and electrons through the junction.
Biasing of a Diode
When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased
conditions with the given supply. They are Forward biased condition and Reverse biased
condition. Let us know them in detail.
Forward Biased Condition
When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode
to the negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward biased
condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more forward biased and
helps in more conduction. A diode conducts well in forward biased condition.
Reverse Biased Condition
When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and
cathode to the positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be
Reverse biased condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more
reverse biased and helps in minimizing and preventing the conduction. A diode cannot
conduct in reverse biased condition.
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Let us now try to know what happens if a diode is connected in forward biased and in
reverse biased conditions.
Working under Forward Biased
When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it cancels the potential barrier
and permits the flow of current is called as forward bias. When anode and cathode are
connected to positive and negative terminals respectively, the holes in P-type and
electrons in N-type tend to move across the junction, breaking the barrier. There exists a
free flow of current with this, almost eliminating the barrier
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With the repulsive force provided by positive terminal to holes and by negative terminal
to electrons, the recombination takes place in the junction. The supply voltage should be
such high that it forces the movement of electrons and holes through the barrier and to
cross it to provide forward current.
Forward Current is the current produced by the diode when operating in forward biased
condition and it is indicated by If.
Working under Reverse Biased
When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it increases the potential barrier
and restricts the flow of current is called as Reverse bias. When anode and cathode are
connected to negative and positive terminals respectively, the electrons are attracted
towards the positive terminal and holes are attracted towards the negative terminal.
Hence both will be away from the potential barrier increasing the junction resistance and
preventing any electron to cross the junction.
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The following figure explains this. The graph of conduction when no field is applied and
when some external field is applied are also drawn.
Purpose of a Diode
A diode is used to block the electric current flow in one direction, i.e. in forward
direction and to block in reverse direction. This principle of diode makes it work as a
Rectifier.
For a circuit to allow the current flow in one direction but to stop in the other direction,
the rectifier diode is the best choice. Thus the output will be DC removing the AC
components. The circuits such as half wave and full wave rectifiers are made using
diodes, which can be studied in Electronic Circuits tutorials.
A diode is also used as a Switch. It helps a faster ON and OFF for the output that should
occur in a quick rate.
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Junction Diodes
There are many types of diodes depending upon many factors such as the frequency used,
their working and construction, their applications etc. Let us go through few of them.
Junction diodes
The junction diodes are the normal PN junction diodes but differ in construction. There
are three types of junction diodes, as shown in the following figure
Rectifier Diode
These diodes are the normal PN junction diodes, which allow current to flow through
them in only one direction and stop in the other direction. These diodes are used in
rectifier circuits to convert alternating current into direct current.
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In the above figure, we can see the same rectifier diodes with a metal projection. This is
added to the diode to minimize the heat distribution which might affect the diode
sometimes. Such a metal projection is called as Heat sink. These help in the improvement
of the diode performance and the diodes will be able to withstand high powers, without
getting affected.
There are circuits such as Half wave rectifier and Full wave rectifier circuits which use
these diodes. These circuits are discussed in ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS tutorial. These
rectifier circuits are used in Power supply sections of many circuits where alternating
input current has to be converted into direct current for that circuit applications.
Zener Diode
This is a special kind of diode which permits current flow not only in forward direction, but also
in reverse direction. A normal diode, when operated in reverse bias, gets damaged if the reverse
current above a certain value is passed through it. This certain value is called as the Breakdown
voltage.
The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is very low. But this diode allows the reverse current to
pass through it, once this breakdown voltage is exceeded. That breakdown voltage is called as
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Zener Voltage. Hence there is a controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode when a
reverse current above the Zener voltage passes through a Zener diode.
A Zener diode in its reverse bias, exhibits a controlled breakdown voltage and it allows the
current flow to keep the value of voltage across that Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown
voltage value. This value of Zener breakdown voltage makes any Zener diode to be chosen for
certain applications.
Avalanche diode is another diode which has the similar characteristics of Zener diode. The
avalanche breakdown takes place across the entire PN junction, when the voltage drop is
constant and is independent of current. This avalanche diode is used for photodetection.
Applications of Zener diode
✓ This diode has many applications such as −
✓ It is mostly used as a Voltage Regulator.
✓ Provides fixed reference voltage in transistor biasing circuits.
✓ For peak clipping or limiting in wave shaping circuits.
✓ As a Surge protector in many circuits.
✓ For meter protection against damage from accidental applications.
Optoelectronic Diodes
These are the diodes which are operated on light. The word Opto means Light.
There are types that conduction depending upon the light intensity and other types
whose conduction delivers some light. Each type has got applications of their
own. Let us discuss the prominent types among these ones.
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Some diodes conduct according to the intensity of light falls on them. There are
two main types of diodes in this category. They are Photo diodes and Solar cells.
Photo Diode
Photo diode, as the name implies, is a PN junction which works on light. The
intensity of light affects the level of conduction in this diode. The photo diode has
a P type material and an N-type material with an intrinsic material or a depletion
region in between.
This diode is generally operated in reverse bias condition. The light when focused
on the depletion region, electron-hole pairs are formed and flow of electron
occurs. This conduction of electrons depends upon the intensity of light focused.
The figure below shows a practical Photo diode.
The figure below indicates the symbol for a photodiode.
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When the diode is connected in reverse bias, a small reverse saturation current
flows due to thermally generated electron hole pairs. As the current in reverse bias
flows due to minority carriers, the output voltage depends upon this reverse
current. As the light intensity focused on the junction increases, the current flow
due to minority carriers increase. The following figure shows the basic biasing
arrangement of a photo diode.
The Photo diode is encapsulated in a glass package to allow the light to fall onto
it. In order to focus the light exactly on the depletion region of the diode, a lens is
placed above the junction, just as illustrated above.
Even when there is no light, a small amount of current flows which is termed as
Dark Current. By changing the illumination level, reverse current can be changed.
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Advantages of Photo diode
Photo diode has many advantages such as −
✓ Low noise
✓ High gain
✓ High speed operation
✓ High sensitivity to light
✓ Low cost
✓ Small size
✓ Long lifetime
Applications of Photo diode
There are many applications for photo diode such as −
✓ Character detection
✓ Objects can be detected visible or invisible
✓ Used in circuits that require high stability and speed.
✓ Used in Demodulation
✓ Used in switching circuits
✓ Used in Encoders
✓ Used in optical communication equipment
Another diode of such a kind is Solar cell. It is termed as a cell though it is a
diode. Let us get into the details.
Solar Cell
The light dependent diodes include Solar cell, which is a normal PN junction
diode but has its conduction by the rush of photons which are converted into the
flow of electrons. This is similar to a photo diode but it has another objective of
converting maximum incident light into energy and storing it.
The figure below represents the symbol of a solar cell.
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A solar cell has its name and symbol indicating storing of energy though it is a diode. The
feature of extracting more energy and storing of it is concentrated in the solar cell.
Construction of a Solar cell
A PN junction diode with an intrinsic material in the deletion region is made to
encapsulate in a glass. The light is made to incident on maximum area possible with thin
glass on the top so as to collect maximum light with minimum resistance.
The following figure shows the construction of a Solar cell.
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When the light is incident on the solar cell, the photons in the light collide with valence
electrons. The electrons are energized to leave the parent atoms. Thus a flow of electrons
is generated and this current is directly proportional to the light intensity focused onto the
solar cell. This phenomenon is called as the Photo-Voltaic effect.
The following figure shows how a solar cell looks like and how a number of solar cells
together are made to form a solar panel.
Difference between a Photo diode and Solar cell
Photo Diode works faster and concentrates on switching rather than providing more
power at the output. It has a low capacitance value because of this. Also the area of
incidence of light energy is lesser in Photo diode, according to its applications.
A Solar cell concentrates on delivering high output energy and storing the energy. This
has high capacitance value. The operation is a bit slower than photo diode. According to
the purpose of the solar cell, the area of incidence of light is larger than photo diode.
Applications of Solar Cell
There are many applications for Solar cell such as −
Science and Technology
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✓ Used in Solar panels for Satellites
✓ Used in telemetry
✓ Used in Remote lighting systems etc.
Commercial Use
✓ Used in Solar panels for storage of electricity
✓ Used in Portable power supplies etc.
✓ Used in household uses such as cooking and heating using solar energy
Electronic
✓ Watches
✓ Calculators
✓ Electronic Toys, etc.
Some diodes emit light according to the voltage applied. There are two main types
of diodes in this category. They are LEDs and Laser diodes.
LED Light Emitting Diodes
This one is the most popular diodes used in our daily life. This is also a normal
PN junction diode except that instead of silicon and germanium, the materials like
gallium arsenide, gallium arsenide phosphide are used in its construction.
The figure below shows the symbol of a Light emitting diode.
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like a normal PN junction diode, this is connected in forward bias condition so that the
diode conducts. The conduction takes place in a LED when the free electrons in the
conduction band combine with the holes in the valence band. This process of
recombination emits light. This process is called as Electroluminescence. The color of the
light emitted depends upon the gap between the energy bands.
The materials used also effect the colors like, gallium arsenide phosphide emits either red
or yellow, gallium phosphide emits either red or green and gallium nitrate emits blue
light. Whereas gallium arsenide emits infrared light. The LEDs for non-visible Infrared
light are used mostly in remote controls.
The following figure shows a how the practical LEDs of different colors looks like.
Advantages of LED
There are many advantages of LED such as −
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✓ High efficiency ✓ High levels of brightness and
✓ High speed intensity
✓ High reliability ✓ Low voltage and current
✓ Low heat dissipation requirements
✓ Larger life span ✓ Less wiring required
✓ Low cost ✓ Low maintenance cost
✓ Easily controlled and ✓ No UV radiation
programmable ✓ Instant Lighting effect
Applications of LED
There are many applications for LED such as −
In Displays
✓ Especially used for seven segment display
✓ Digital clocks
✓ Microwave ovens
✓ Traffic signaling
✓ Display boards in railways and public places
✓ Toys
In Electronic Appliances
✓ Stereo tuners
✓ Calculators
✓ DC power supplies
✓ On/Off indicators in amplifiers
✓ Power indicators
Commercial Use
✓ Infrared readable machines
✓ Barcode readers
✓ Solid state video displays
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Optical Communications
✓ In Optical switching applications
✓ For Optical coupling where manual help is unavailable
✓ Information transfer through FOC
✓ Image sensing circuits
✓ Burglar alarms
✓ In Railway signaling techniques
✓ Door and other security control systems
Just as LED has many advantages and applications, there is another important diode
called Laser diode, which also has got many advanced features and scope of future.
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Basic Electronics - Transistors
After having a good knowledge on the working of the diode, which is a single PN
junction, let us try to connect two PN junctions which make a new component called
Transistor. A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or
voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for signals.
Why Do We Need Transistors?
Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want. The received
signal will obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face during its journey.
Now if this signal is read as it is, you cannot get a fair output. Hence we need to amplify
the signal. Amplification means increasing the signal strength.
This is just an instance. Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be
increased. This is done by a transistor. A transistor also acts as a switch to choose
between available options. It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the
signals.
Constructional Details of a Transistor
The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two
diodes back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of
the three semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types
of transistors. They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two
Ptypes and the other is a P-type material between two N-types respectively.
The construction of transistors is as shown in the following figure which explains the idea
discussed above.
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Types of Transistors
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