Units and Measurement
Units and Measurements are essential for expressing physical quantities in
a standardized way. The International System of Units (SI) includes base
units like meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, and second (s) for
time. Measurements can involve scalar quantities (e.g., mass) or vector
quantities (e.g., velocity). Dimensional analysis helps in converting and
verifying units. Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the true value,
while precision is the consistency of repeated measurements. Errors can
be systematic (due to equipment or methods) or random (due to
unpredictable factors).
Fundamental Forces And Its Range
1. Gravitational Force: Gravitational force is the weakest force in
nature. It is the force of mutual attraction between two objects due to
their masses. This force is universal in nature.
2. Electromagnetic Force: Electromagnetic force is the force between
charged particles. When charges are in motion, they generate magnetic
fields, which in turn exert a force on other moving charges. Since electric
and magnetic effects are generally interrelated, this interaction is referred
to as the electromagnetic force.
3. Strong Nuclear Force: The strong nuclear force holds protons and
neutrons together in the nucleus. Without this attractive force, the nucleus
would be unstable due to the electric repulsion between protons. The
strong nuclear force is the strongest of all fundamental forces. It is charge
[Link] is equal for protons and [Link] range is extremely
small, of the order of nuclear dimensions (10-15 10^-15 m).
4. Weak Nuclear Force: The weak nuclear force is involved only in
specific nuclear processes, such as the β-decay of a nucleus. During β-
decay, the nucleus emits an electron and an uncharged particle known as
the antineutrino. While the weak nuclear force is not as weak as gravity, it
is significantly weaker than the strong nuclear force. Its range is extremely
small, on the order of 10-16 10^{-16} meters.
Range of Fundamental Forces
Gravitational Force→Infinite
Electromagnetic Force→ Infinite
Strong Nuclear Force→ Short (Nuclear Size: M)
Weak Nuclear Force→Very Short ( M)
Relative Strength
Physical Quantities
Physical quantities are those quantities used to describe the laws of
physics that can be measured.
Classification On Basis Of Directional Properties
Fundamental or Base Quantities: The quantity that does not depend
upon other quantities for its complete definition.
(1) Mass
(2) Length
(3) Time
(4) Temperature
(5) Current
(6) Luminous Intensity
(7) Amount of Substance
Derived Quantities:The quantity that can be described in terms of the
fundamental quantity.
(1) Area
(2) Force
(3) Density
Dimensions and Dimensional Formula
Dimensions: It is a physical quantity are the powers to which the base
quantity are raised to express that quantity.
Dimensional Formula:
The expressions that represent how and which of the base quantities are
included in that quantity.
NOTE: It is expressed by placing the symbols for the base quantities with
the correct powers inside square brackets.
Dimensional Equation:The equation formed by equating a physical
quantity to its dimensional formula is known as a dimensional equation.
Dimensions of differential coefficients and integrals
Rule of Dimensions
Only SAME physical quantities can be added or subtracted.
A+B=C–D
Dimensionless Quantities
Dimensionless Quantities are:
• Ratio of physical quantities with same dimensions.
• All mathematical constants.
• All standard mathematical functions and their inputs (exponential,
logarithmic, trigonometric & inverse trigonometric).
Conversion between System of Units
Magnitude = numeric value (n) × unit (u) = constant
So, if a quantity is represented by [MaLbTc] then:
Law of Homogeneity and Dimensions of Unknown Quantities
Applications of Dimensional Formula
To verify the dimensional accuracy of a given physical equation:
If in a given relation, terms on both the sides have the same dimensions,
then the relation is dimensionally correct. This is known as the Principle of
Homogeneity of Dimensions.
To verify the dimensional correctness of a given physical
relationship:
If in a given relation, the terms on both the sides have the same
dimensions, then the relation is dimensionally correct. This is known as
the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.
Relation among Physical Quantities
To derive relationships between different physical quantities: Using the
same principle of homogeneity of dimensions new relations among
physical quantities can be derived if the dependent quantities are known.
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
[Link] Mechanics the formula for a physical quantity depending on more
than three physical quantities cannot be derived. It can only be checked.
2. This method can be used only if the dependency is of multiplication
type.
3. The formulae containing exponential, trigonometrical and logarithmic
functions cannot be derived using this method.
4. Formulae containing more than one term which are added or subtracted
like also cannot be derived.
5. The relation derived from this method gives no information about the
dimensionless constants.
6. If dimensions are given, physical quantities may not be unique as many
physical quantities have the same dimensions.
7. It gives no information whether a physical quantity is a scalar or a
vector.
Significant Figures, Rounding off and Order of Magnitude
Significant Figures or Digits
Significant figures (SF) in a measurement are the figures or digits that are
known with certainty plus one that is uncertain (i.e. Last digit).
The significant figures in a measured value of a physical quantity indicate
the number of digits that are considered reliable. The greater the number
of significant figures in a measurement, the higher its accuracy, and vice
versa.
Rules to find out the number of significant figures
I Rule : All the non-zero digits are significant e.g. 1984 has 4 SF.
II Rule : All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g.
10806 has 5 SF.
III Rule : All the zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not
significant. e.g.00108 has 3 SF.
IV Rule : If a number is less than 1, the zeros to the right of the decimals
point but to the left of the first non-zero digits are not considered
significant. For example, the number 0.002308 has 4 significant figures.
V Rule : The trailing zeros (zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit) in
a number with a decimal point are significant. e.g. 01.080 has 4 SF.
VI Rule : The trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point may not
be significant e.g. 010100 has 3 SF.
VII Rule : When the number is expressed in exponential form, the
exponential term does not affect the number of S.F. For example, in
Each term has 3 SF only.
Rules for arithmetical operations with significant figures
I Rule :In addition or subtraction, the result should have the same no. of
decimal places as the term with the fewest decimal places in the
operation. For example, in the calculation 12.587−12.5=0.08712.587 -
12.5 = 0.087, the result is rounded to 0.10.1 because the second term has
only one decimal place.
II Rule : In multiplication or division, the number of SF in the product or
quotient is the same as the smallest number of SF in any of the factors.
e.g. 2.4 × 3.65 = 8.8
Rounding off
To represent the result of any computation containing more than one
uncertain digit, it is rounded off to an adequate number of significant
figures.
Rules for rounding off the numbers:
I Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is more than 5, then the preceding
digit is increased by one. e.g. 6.87 ≈ 6.9
II Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is less than 5, then the preceding
digit is left unchanged. e.g. 3.94 ≈ 3.9
III Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is 5, then the preceding digit is
increased by one if it is odd and is left unchanged if it is even. e.g. 14.35
≈ 14.4 and 14.45 ≈ 14.4
Order of Magnitude
The order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 needed to express
that quantity. This power is determined after properly rounding the value
of the quantity. When rounding, if the last digit is less than 5, it is ignored,
while if it is 5 or greater, the digit is increased by one.
• When a number is divided by 10x (where x is the order of magnitude of
the number), the result will always fall between 0.5 and 5, i.e., 0.5 ≤N/<
5.
Types and Representation of Errors
Errors in Measurement
Every measurement made with a measuring instrument carries some
degree of uncertainty, which is referred to as an error. The error in a
measurement is the difference between the true value and the measured
value of a quantity.
Error = True value – Measured value
Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors:- Systematic errors are errors with known causes,
and they can be either positive or negative. Since their causes are
understood, these errors can be minimised. Systematic errors can be
further classified into three types:
(i) Instrumental Errors : Error due to imperfect design or calibration of
the measuring instrument.
(ii) Environmental Errors : These errors result from variations in outer
environmental conditions, such as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust,
and vibrations.
(iii) Observational Errors : These errors occur due to faulty setup of the
apparatus or Carelessness in recording observations.
2. Random Errors: These errors occurred from unknown factors, making
them unpredictable and variable in both magnitude and direction. Since
their exact causes are not fully understood, they cannot be entirely
eliminated.
3. Gross Errors: Gross errors occur due to human mistakes or
carelessness in taking readings, as well as errors in calculating or
recording measurement results.
Representation Of Errors
[Link] Error (): The difference between the true value and an
individual measured value of the quantity.
Absolute Error = True Value – Measured Value
If the true value of a quantity is not given then the mean of all the
measured values is taken.
[Link] Absolute Erroram: The arithmetic mean of all the absolute
errors(magnitudes) is defined as the final or mean absolute error.
[Link] Or Fractional Error:The ratio of the mean absolute error to
either the true value or the average value of the measured quantity.
[Link] Error: When the relative error is represented as a
percentage, it is referred to as the percentage error.
5. the Least Count: It is the smallest value of a physical quantity that
can be calculated accurately by an instrument.
Least Count Error: This is related to the resolution of the measuring
[Link] the instrument has unknown least count the absolute error is
taken to be equal to the least count unless otherwise stated.
Rule 1: - Addition or Subtraction of Quantities:
The maximum absolute error in the sum or difference of two quantities is
equal to the sum of the absolute errors in each of the individual
quantities.
X=A+B or X=A-B then the maximum absolute error in X is
Maximum percentage error =
Result will be written as ((in terms of absolute error)
(in terms of PercentageError)
Rule 2:Multiplication or Division of Quantities:
The maximum fractional or relative error in the product or quotient of
quantities is the sum of the fractional or relative errors of the individual
quantities involved.
If
Rule 3:The maximum fractional error in a quantity raised to power n is n
times the fractional error in the quantity itself
1. If
2. If
3. If
Vernier Callipers
A measuring instrument used to measure linear dimensions, the
Vernier calliper is also employed to measure the diameters of round
objects using its measuring jaws. The Vernier scale, invented by
French mathematician Pierre Vernier in 1631, enhances the accuracy
of measurements. The primary advantage of the Vernier
calliperwith the over the main scale is its ability to provide highly
accurate and precise measurements.
Least Count of Vernier Callipers
Let the size of one main scale division (M.S.D.) be M units, and the size of
one Vernier scale division (V.S.D.) be V units. Additionally, assume that the
length of 'a' main scale divisions is equal to the length of 'b' Vernier scale
divisions.
∴
Least Count(x)=Difference between MSD & VSD
10 VSD=9 MSD
1 VSD=0.9 MSD
x=1 MSD-1 VSD=1 MSD -0.9 MSD=0.1 MSD
Generally,1 MSD=1mm
x=0.1 mm
Measurement with Vernier Calliper
Reading=Main Scale Reading+Vernier Scale Reading
Reading=MSR+V S coincided with the division with MS ✕ LC
Zero Error
If the zero marking of the main scale and Vernier calliper do not coincide,
necessary correction has to be made for this error which is known as zero
error of the instrument.
1. Positive Zero Error :If the zero of the Vernier scale is to the right of
the zero on the main scale, the zero error is considered positive. To obtain
the corrected value, the zero error must always be subtracted from the
reading.
Positive Zero Error Correction
READING = (Main Scale Reading) + (Vernier Scale Reading) – ZE
Positive zero error = VS Coincided division with MS × LC
2. Negative Zero Error
If the zero of the Vernier scale is to the left of the zero of the main scale
the
zero error is said to be negative.
The zero error is always subtracted from the reading to get the corrected
value.
Negative Zero Error Correction
Negative zero error = –(Total VSD – VS Coincided division with MS) × LC
Screw Gauge
A screw gauge is the most accurate instrument for measuring
spherical or cylindrical objects. However, an intricately calibrated
screw gauge can be challenging for untrained hands to use
effectively. The goal of this article is to familiarize individuals with
the fundamentals of using a screw gauge.
Pitch of Screw Gauge:
The pitch of the instrument is the distance between two consecutive
threads of the screw which is equal to the distance moved by the screw
due to one complete rotation of the cap.
Least Count of Screw Gauge
The minimum (or least) measurement (or count) of length is equal to one
division on the main scale, which is equal to pitch divided by the total cap
divisions.
Pitch of screw gauge = P
Number of division on circular scale = N
Length as measured by Screw Gauge
The formula for measuring the length is, L = (n × pitch) + (f × least
count)
Where, n = main scale reading;f=Circular scale reading
Zero Error in Screw Gauge
If there is no object between the studs (i.e., the studs are in contact), the
screw gauge should ideally show a zero reading. However, due to the
presence of extra material on the studs, the gauge may give a small
positive reading even when there is no object. This excess reading is
referred to as zero error.
Calculation of zero error for screw gauge: -
Positive zero error = CS Coincided division with MS × LC
Negative zero error = –(Total CSD – CS Coincided division with MS) × LC
Correct reading = (Reading) – (zero error)
Spherometer
Parts of Spherometer
[Link] Scale
[Link] Scale
Pitch of screw gauge = P
Number of division on circular scale = N
Least count of Spherometer =
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy: The extent of closeness between the measured value and the
true value.
It refers to the capability of an instrument to measure the true or correct
value. It represents how close the measured value is to the standard or
true value. To achieve accuracy, it is important to take multiple
measurements, as smaller readings help minimize calculation errors.
Precision: How consistent our results are, regardless of proximity to true
value.
The precision of a substance refers to the closeness of two or more
measurements to each other. For example, if you weigh a substance five
times and obtain 4.3 kg each time, your measurements are highly precise,
but this does not necessarily mean they are accurate. Precision is
independent of accuracy.
Solved Examples
Q-1 Find the dimensions of unknown quantities p, q in the
following:
where, U: - Potential energy, t :- Time
Solution:
Dimensions of potential energy
Inside cos function →dimensionless
qt→Dimensionless
[Link] that the time of revolution T of a satellite around the
Earth depends on the universal gravitational constant G, the
mass of the Earth M, and the radius of the circular orbit RR,
derive an expression for T using dimensional analysis.
Solution:
[Link] 1 newton (SI unit) into dyne (CGS unit)?
Solution:
[Link] the jaws of the vernier calliper are in contact with each
other, calculate the zero error of the vernier calliper, given that
the Vernier Scale Division (VSD) is 3 and the least count is 0.1
mm.
Solution:
When the jaws of the vernier calliper are in contact with each other, the
least count of the vernier calliper is defined as:
LC = MSD – VSD
LC = 0.1 mm
The main scale reading, MSR = 0 mm
The vernier scale reading, VSR = 3
Therefore, Zero error = MSR + VSR × LC = 0 + 3 × 0.1 = 0.3 mm
[Link] screw gauge has a pitch of 1 mm, and there are 100
divisions on the circular scale. When measuring the diameter of a
sphere, the linear scale reads 6 divisions, while 40 divisions of
the circular scale align with the reference line. Calculate the
diameter of the sphere.
Solution:
Least count of the screw gauge is L.C = pitch / number of circular divisions
= 1/100 = 0.01mm
Linear scale reading (LSR) = 6 × 1mm = 6mm
Circular scale reading (CSR) = 40 × 0.01mm
Diameter of the sphere = LSR + (CSR × L.C) = 6 + (40 × 0.01) = 6.4mm