Contents

1 Algebraic Structures 2
1.1 Binary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Group Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2 Group Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3 Ring Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.1 Subrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3.2 Ring Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3.3 Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3.4 Notable Elements of a Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3.5 Quotient Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4.1 Characteristic of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4.2 Examples of Fields and Sub…elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4.3 Field Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1
Chapter 1

Algebraic Structures

1.1 Binary Operations

De…nition 1 A binary operation on a set S is any map : S S ! S. For a pair (x; y) 2 S S,
the value of the operation is called the product of x and y (or the composition of x and y in the
given order).

A binary operation on the set S can be denoted in various ways, especially since several laws may
be de…ned on the same set. One may use a functional symbol, for example, : (x; y) 7! (x; y).
More often, however, a composition symbol is used, for instance , inserted between the two
components: (x; y) 7! x y.
A subset T S is said to be closed under the operation if:

8a; b 2 T; a b 2 T:

Example 2 Let A be a set and S = P(A). Then set intersection and union are two binary
operations on S, because for all X; Y 2 P(A), X \ Y A, and X [ Y A.
Let T = fa; bg; fa; cg; fb; cg P(fa; b; cg). Then T is not closed under either intersection or
union, because:
9X = fa; bg; Y = fa; cg 2 T ; X \ Y = fag 2 = T;
9X = fa; bg; Y = fa; cg 2 T ; X [ Y = fa; b; cg 2= T:
De…nition 3 Let and be binary operations on a set S. We say that:
1) is commutative if 8a; b 2 S; a b = b a;
2) is associative if 8a; b; c 2 S; (a b) c = a (b c);
3) an element e 2 S is a left identity (respectively, right identity) for if

8a 2 S; e a = a (respectively a e = a):

If e is both a left and a right identity for , then e is called an identity element for .
4) is distributive over if 8a; b; c 2 S,

a (b c) = (a b) (a c) and (b c) a = (b a) (c a);

2
Example 4 Let F be a set and S = P(F ). Consider the binary operations \ and [ on S. It is
straightforward to verify that:

both \ and [ are associative;

both \ and [ are commutative;

; is the identity element for [;

F is the identity element for \.

Moreover, we have: Intersection distributes over union, and union distributes over intersection.

Example 5 Let S = R n f1g and de…ne the binary operation on S by

x y = xy x y + 2; 8x; y 2 S:

Show that is a binary operation which is commutative and associative, that S has an identity
element, and that every element of S is invertible.

1. Closure. Let x; y 2 S. Suppose x y = 1. Then

xy x y + 2 = 1 =) xy x y + 1 = 0 =) (x 1)(y 1) = 0:

This implies x = 1 or y = 1, which is impossible since x; y 2 S = R n f1g. Hence x y 2 S, so S

is closed under .
2. Commutativity. Let x; y 2 S: Clearly,

x y = xy x y + 2 = yx y x + 2 = y x;

so is commutative.
3. Associativity. For all x; y; z 2 S,

(x y) z = (xy x y + 2) z
= (xy x y + 2)z (xy x y + 2) z+2
= xyz xz yz + 2z xy + x + y 2 z+2
= xyz xy xz yz + x + y + z + 0
= x (y z);

so is associative.
4. Identity element. Let e 2 S be such that x e = x for all x 2 S:

x e = xe x e + 2 = x =) xe e+2 x x = x?

3
Let’s compute carefully:

x e = xe x e+2=x =) xe x e+2=x
=) xe e+2 2x = 0
=) e(x 1) 2(x 1) = 0
=) (e 2)(x 1) = 0:

Since x 6= 1, we get e 2 = 0 =) e = 2. So the identity element is 2 2 S.

5. Inverse element. Let x 2 S and y 2 S be its inverse: x y = 2. Then

xy x y+2=2 =) xy x y=0
=) xy x y+1=1
=) (x 1)(y 1) = 1
1
=) y =1+ :
x 1
Since x 6= 1, y 6= 1, hence y 2 S. So every element has an inverse in S.

Proposition 6 If a binary operation on a set S has a right identity e0 and a left identity e00 ,
then e0 = e00 , and this common element is the identity for .

Proof. Let e0 be a right identity and e00 a left identity for . Then:

e0 = e00 e0 since e00 is a left identity;

e00 = e00 e0 since e0 is a right identity:

Hence, e0 = e00 .

Remark 7 By the above property, if a binary operation possesses an identity element, then it
is unique.

De…nition 8 Let be a binary operation on a set S with identity element e. An element a 2 S is

said to be right-invertible (respectively, left-invertible) with respect to if there exists an element
a0 2 S such that
a a0 = e (respectively a0 a = e):
Such an element a0 is called a right inverse (respectively, left inverse) of a. If there exists an
element a0 2 S satisfying
a0 a = a a0 = e;
then a is said to be invertible (or symmetrizable), and a0 is called an inverse (or symmetric) of a
with respect to .

Remark 9 An element a is invertible (or symmetrizable) if and only if it is both left- and
right-invertible.

4
 The inverse (or symmetric) of an element is not necessarily unique.

Example 10 Let S = fa; b; g, and de…ne a binary operation on S by the following Cayley
table:

a b
a a b
b b a
a a
That is, 8
>
< 1. a a = a; a b = b; a = ;
2. b a = b; b b = ; b = a;
>
:
3. a= ; b = a; = a:
We observe that:

I. a is the identity element for ;

II. Every element of S is invertible:

I) a is its own inverse;

II) is the inverse of b;
III) both b and are inverses of .

Proposition 11 Let be a binary operation on a set S with identity element e. Then:

1) e is invertible, and its unique inverse is e itself;
2) If a 2 S is invertible with inverse a0 , then a0 is invertible and a is an inverse of a0 .

Proof.
1) Let x0 2 S. Then

x0 is an inverse of e () e x0 = x0 e = e () x0 = e ;

so the only inverse of e is e itself.

2) Let a 2 S be invertible with inverse a0 2 S. Then

a a0 = a0 a = e;

which shows that a0 is invertible and that a is an inverse of a0 .

Proposition 12 (Uniqueness of the Inverse) Let be an associative binary operation on a set

S with identity element e. If an element x 2 S admits a right inverse x1 and a left inverse x2 ,
then x1 = x2 .

5
Proof. Assume x x1 = e and x2 x = e. Then:

x1 = e x1 = (x2 x) x1 = x2 (x x1 ) (since is associative) = x2 e = x2 :

Remark 13

From this property, it follows that associativity guarantees the uniqueness of the inverse of
an element, whenever it exists.

Consequently, the operation de…ned in Example 10 is not associative. Indeed:

(b b) = = a whereas b (b ) = b a = b;

so
(b b) 6= b (b );
which con…rms that is not associative.

Given an associative binary operation on a set S:

If the operation is denoted additively (i.e., by +), its identity element is denoted 0S or simply
0, and the symetric of an element a is called its opposite and is denoted by a. The sum of
x repeated n times is denoted by na

a + a + ::: + a = na

and
( a) + ( a) + + ( a) = na:

If the operation is denoted multiplicatively, its identity element is denoted 1S or simply 1,

and the symetric of an element a is called its inverse and is denoted by a 1 . The product of
x repeated n times is denoted by xn :

a a a = xn ; a 1
a 1
a 1
=a n
:

In the latter case, it is common to omit the intercalated symbol (symbol-free notation), so
that the composition is simply written xy.

With these conventions, if e is the identity element of a binary operation on S, then

1
e = e (or e = e);

and for all a; a0 2 S,

a0 1
() a0 a = a a0 = e or a0 = a () a0 + a = a + a0 = e :

6
Property 14 Let be an associative binary operation on a set S with identity element e. If
a; b 2 S are invertible, then a b is invertible, and

1 1
(a b) =b a 1:

Proof. Let a; b 2 S be invertible. Then:

1
(a b) (b a 1) = a (b b 1 ) a 1
(since is associative)
1
= (a e) a
1
= a a = e:

Similarly, one shows that

1
(b a 1 ) (a b) = e:
1 1
Hence, a b is invertible and (a b) =b a 1.

De…nition 15 Let be a binary operation on a set S. An element r 2 S is said to be right-

cancellative (respectively, left-cancellative) if

8b; c 2 S; b r = c r =) b = c

(respectively,
8b; c 2 S; r b = r c =) b = c):
If r is both left- and right-cancellative, then r is called a cancellative element for in S.

Example 16 Let F be a set and S = P(F ). Then ; is cancellative for union in S, and F is
cancellative for intersection in S.

Proposition 17 Let be an associative binary operation on a set S with identity element e. Then
every invertible element in (S; ) is cancellative.

1
Proof. Let x 2 S be invertible. Then x exists, and for any a; b 2 S:

1 1
a x = b x =) (a x) x = (b x) x
=) a (x x 1 ) = b (x x 1 ) (since is associative)
=) a e = b e
=) a = b:

Thus, x is right-cancellative. Similarly, one shows that x is left-cancellative.

Remark 18 If x is right-invertible (respectively, left-invertible), then x is right-cancellative (re-

spectively, left-cancellative) with respect to .

7
1.2 Group Structure
De…nition 19 A group is a nonempty set G equipped with a binary operation :G G ! G
satisfying the following axioms:
1) is associative;
2) has an identity element e 2 G;
3) Every element of G is invertible with respect to .

If, in addition, is commutative, then (G; ) is called an abelian group (or commutative group).

Example 20 (Z; +), is an abelian group. The identity element is 0 and the symetric of x 2 Z is
x:
Similarly, (Q; +), (R; +), and (C; +) are also abelian groups.

Example 21 The (Z; ) with usual multiplication, is not a group, since most integers are not
invertible (except 1).

Example 22 (Qn f0g ; ), (Rn f0g ; ) and (Cn f0g ; ) are also abelian groups.

Example 23 Let S = R n f1g and be the binary operation on S by

x y = xy x y + 2; 8x; y 2 S:
Then (G; ) is an abelian group.

Example 24 De…ne a binary operation on the open interval ( 1; 1) by

x+y
8x; y 2 ( 1; 1); x y = :
1 + xy
We show that ( 1; 1); is an abelian group.

is a binary operation on ( 1; 1).

Let x; y 2 ( 1; 1). Then jxj < 1 and jyj < 1, so
jxyj = jxjjyj < 1;
whence
1 + xy > 1 jxyj > 0:
We now verify that jx yj < 1:
x+y
< 1 () jx + yj < j1 + xyj
1 + xy
() jx + yj < 1 + xy (since 1 + xy > 0)
8
<x + y 1 xy < 0;
()
:x + y + 1 + xy > 0;
8
<(1 y)(x 1) < 0;
()
:(1 + y)(x + 1) > 0:

8
Since 1 < x; y < 1, we have 1 y > 0, x 1 < 0, 1 + y > 0, and x + 1 > 0. Hence both
inequalities hold, and therefore

8x; y 2 ( 1; 1); jx yj < 1:

Thus, maps ( 1; 1) ( 1; 1) into ( 1; 1), so it is a binary operation.

is commutative.
By commutativity of addition and multiplication in R,
x+y y+x
x y= = = y x;
1 + xy 1 + yx
so is commutative.
is associative.
Let x; y; z 2 ( 1; 1). Compute:
x+y
1+xy
+ z (x + y) + z(1 + xy) x + y + z + xyz
(x y) z = x+y = = :
1 + 1+xy z (1 + xy) + (x + y)z 1 + xy + xz + yz

Similarly,
y+z
x+ 1+yz x(1 + yz) + (y + z) x + y + z + xyz
x (y z) = y+z = = :
1+x 1+yz
(1 + yz) + x(y + z) 1 + xy + xz + yz
Hence (x y) z = x (y z), so is associative.
has an identity element.
Suppose e 2 ( 1; 1) satis…es e x = x for all x 2 ( 1; 1). Then:
e+x
= x () e + x = x + x2 e () e(1 x2 ) = 0:
1 + ex
Since this must hold for all x 2 ( 1; 1) (and 1 x2 6= 0 for jxj < 1), we must have e = 0. Indeed,
0 2 ( 1; 1) and
x+0
x 0= = x;
1+x 0
so 0 is the identity element.
Every element of ( 1; 1) is invertible.
Let x 2 ( 1; 1). Seek x0 2 ( 1; 1) such that x x0 = 0. Then:
x + x0
0
= 0 () x + x0 = 0 () x0 = x:
1 + xx
Since jxj < 1 implies j xj = jxj < 1, we have x 2 ( 1; 1). By commutativity, x is a two-sided
inverse of x.
From (1)–(5), ( 1; 1); is an abelian group.

Example 25 Let S be a set and denote by P(S) its power set. De…ne a binary operation on
P(S) by
A B = (A n B) [ (B n A); for all A; B 2 P(S):

9
 The identity element is the empty set ?, since

A ? = ? A = A for all A 2 P(S):

Moreover, every element is its own inverse:

A A = ?;

so the inverse of A is A itself.

The operation is associative and commutative, hence (P(S); ) is an abelian group.

Remark 26 In abstract algebra, structures with a single binary operation are classi…ed according
to the properties they satisfy. The standard hierarchy is as follows:

1. Magma: A structure (M; ) with a single binary operation that is closed, i.e.,

8a; b 2 M; a b2M

No further assumptions are made.

2. Semigroup: A magma that is associative, i.e.,

8a; b; c 2 M; (a b) c = a (b c)

So a semigroup is a magma that satis…es associativity only.

3. Monoid: A semigroup with an identity element e, i.e.,

8a 2 M; e a=a e=a

Thus a monoid satis…es associativity and existence of an identity element.

4. Group: A monoid where every element has an inverse a 1 , i.e.,
1 1
a a =a a=e

1.2.1 Subgroups
De…nition 27 Let (G; ) be a group. A nonempty subset H G is called a subgroup of G if the
restriction of to H H makes (H; ) a group.

Since is associative on G, its restriction to H is automatically associative. Therefore, a

nonempty subset H G is a subgroup if and only if:

1. H 6= ;;

2. 8a; b 2 H; a b 2 H (closure);
1
3. 8a 2 H; a 2H (closed under inversion).

10
 Clearly, G itself is a subgroup of G.

Example 28 The set R = R n f0g is a group under multiplication. The subset R+ = fx 2 R j

x > 0g is closed under multiplication and inverses, and contains the identity. Hence, R+ is a
subgroup of (R ; ).

Property 29 Let (G; ) be a group and H G. Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if:
1
H 6= ; and 8a; b 2 H; a b 2 H:

Proof.

1
1. Suppose H is a subgroup of G. Then H 6= ;, and for any a; b 2 H, the inverse b 2 H and
the product a b 1 2 H by closure.
1
2. Conversely, suppose H 6= ; and a b 2 H for all a; b 2 H. We verify the group axioms for
H:

Since H 6= ;, choose a 2 H. Then

1
e=a a 2 H;

so the identity element e belongs to H.

1 1
For any a 2 H, we have e a =a 2 H, so H is closed under inversion.
1
For any a; b 2 H, since b 2 H, we have a (b 1 ) 1
= a b 2 H, so H is closed under
the operation.

Associativity is inherited from G. Hence (H; ) is a subgroup.

Exercise. Let
U = fz 2 C j jzj = 1g:
Show that U is a subgroup of (C n f0g; ).
Solution.
To prove that U is a subgroup of (C n f0g; ), we check the subgroup criteria:

1. Non-emptiness: The complex number 1 2 U since j1j = 1. Hence, U 6= ;.

2. Closure under multiplication: Let z1 ; z2 2 U . Then jz1 j = jz2 j = 1. Consider their

product:
jz1 z2 j = jz1 j jz2 j = 1 1 = 1:
Therefore, z1 z2 2 U , so U is closed under multiplication.

11
 3. Closure under taking inverses: Let z 2 U . Then jzj = 1. Its multiplicative inverse is
z 1 = z1 . We have
1 1
jz 1 j = = = 1:
z jzj
1
Hence, z 2 U.

Since all subgroup criteria are satis…ed, U is a subgroup of (C n f0g; ).

Exercise. Let n 2 N be …xed and consider

U = f z 2 C j z n = 1 g:

Show that U is a subgroup of (C n f0g; ).

Solution.
We verify the subgroup criteria.

1. Non-emptiness. The complex number 1 satis…es 1n = 1, so 1 2 U . Hence U 6= ?.

2. Closure under multiplication. Let z1 ; z2 2 U . Then z1n = 1 and z2n = 1. Therefore

(z1 z2 )n = z1n z2n = 1 1 = 1;

so z1 z2 2 U . Thus U is closed under the group operation.

3. Closure under inverses. Let z 2 U . Since z n = 1 and z 6= 0, the inverse z 1

exists and

(z 1 )n = (z n ) 1
=1 1
= 1;
1
hence z 2 U.

By the above, U is a subgroup of (C n f0g; ).

Proposition 30 Let (G; ) be a group, and let H1 and H2 be two subgroups of G. Then the
intersection H1 \ H2 is a subgroup of G.

Proof. Since H1 and H2 are subgroups of G, they are both nonempty and contain the identity
element e of G. Hence,
e 2 H1 \ H2 ;
so H1 \ H2 is nonempty.
Let x; y 2 H1 \ H2 . Then x; y 2 H1 and x; y 2 H2 . Since H1 and H2 are subgroups, they are
closed under the group operation and inverses. Therefore,
1 1
x y 2 H1 and x y 2 H2 :

Hence,
1
x y 2 H1 \ H2 :
By the subgroup criterion, H1 \ H2 is a subgroup of G.

12
Proposition 31 Let (G; ) be a group and let H1 and H2 be two subgroups of G. Then

H1 [ H2 is a subgroup of G () H1 H2 or H2 H1 :

Proof. ()) Assume that H1 [ H2 is a subgroup of G. Suppose, by contradiction, that neither

H1 H2 nor H2 H1 holds. Then there exist elements

x 2 H1 n H2 and y 2 H2 n H1 :

Since x; y 2 H1 [ H2 and H1 [ H2 is a subgroup, it is closed under the operation and inverses.

Hence,
x y 1 2 H1 [ H2 :
1
If x y 2 H1 , then
1 1
y =x (x y 1 ) 2 H1 ;
1
which implies y 2 H1 , a contradiction. If x y 2 H2 , then

x = (x y 1 ) y 2 H2 ;

which implies x 2 H2 , also a contradiction. In both cases we reach a contradiction, so our

assumption is false. Therefore, either H1 H2 or H2 H1 .
(() Assume that H1 H2 . Then
H1 [ H2 = H2 ;
which is a subgroup of G. Similarly, if H2 H1 , then

H1 [ H2 = H1 ;

which is also a subgroup of G.

Hence, H1 [ H2 is a subgroup of G if and only if one of the subgroups is contained in the other.

Proposition 32 Let (Z; +) be the additive group of integers.

1. For any …xed n 2 N0 , the set nZ is a subgroup of (Z; +).

2. Every subgroup of (Z; +) is of the form nZ for some n 2 N0 .

Proof. 1. Let n 2 N and consider the set

nZ = fnk j k 2 Zg:

We show that nZ is a subgroup of (Z; +).

13
 First, 0 = n 0 2 nZ, so nZ is nonempty.
Let x = nk and y = n` be two elements of nZ. Then

x y = nk n` = n(k `) 2 nZ:

By the subgroup criterion, nZ is a subgroup of (Z; +).

2. Let H be a subgroup of (Z; +).
If H = f0g, then H = 0Z and the result holds. Assume now that H 6= f0g. Since H Z and
H contains nonzero integers, there exists a smallest positive integer in H. Let

n = min H \ N :

We claim that H = nZ.

First, since n 2 H and H is a subgroup, all integer multiples of n belong to H, hence

nZ H:

Conversely, let x 2 H. By the Euclidean division theorem, there exist integers q and r such
that
x = qn + r with 0 r < n:
Since x 2 H and qn 2 H, we have
r=x qn 2 H:
By the minimality of n, this forces r = 0. Hence x = qn 2 nZ, which shows that

H nZ:

Therefore, H = nZ for some n 2 N0 .

Quotient Groups
Let (G; ) be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. We de…ne a binary relation R on G by

1
8a; b 2 G; a R b () a b 2 H:

Proposition 33 The relation R is an equivalence relation on G.

Proof.
i) Re‡exivity. For all x 2 G, since H is a subgroup of G, we have

1
x x = e 2 H:

Hence,
8x 2 G; x R x:

14
ii) Symmetry. For all x; y 2 G,

1
x R y () x y 2H

which implies
(x y 1 ) 1
2 H () y x 1
2 H () y R x:

iii) Transitivity. For all x; y; z 2 G,

1 1
(x R y) ^ (y R z) () x y 2H ^ y z 2H :

Since H is a subgroup, it is closed under the group operation, hence

(x y 1 ) (y z 1 ) 2 H:

By associativity of ,
1 1
x (y y) z 2 H;
and therefore
1
x z 2 H;
which implies x R z.
From i), ii), and iii), we conclude that R is an equivalence relation.
We denote by G=H the quotient set G=R . We de…ne a binary operation on G=H G=H by

8 [a]; [b] 2 G=H G=H ; [a] [b] = [a b]:

Proposition 34 If is commutative, then is a well-de…ned internal operation on G=H .

Proof. This amounts to showing that is a mapping from G=H G=H into G=H .
Let [a]; [b] and [c]; [d] be elements of G=H G=H . We show that

([a]; [b]) = ([c]; [d]) =) [a] [b] = [c] [d]:

We have

[a] [b] = [c] [d] () [a b] = [c d]

() (a b) R (c d)
1
() (a b) (c d) 2H
1
() (a b) (d c 1 ) 2 H:

15
 Now suppose that ([a]; [b]) = ([c]; [d]). Then

([a]; [b]) = ([c]; [d]) () ([a] = [c]) ^ ([b] = [d])

() (a R c) ^ (b R d)
1 1
() (a c 2 H) ^ (b d 2 H)
) (a c 1 ) (b d 1 ) 2 H
1
() (a b) (d c 1) 2 H
(by associativity and commutativity)
() [a] [b] = [c] [d]:

This proves that the operation is well de…ned on G=H .

Proposition 35 If (G; ) is an abelian group, then (G=H ; ) is an abelian group, called the quo-
tient group of G by H.

Proof. i) Associativity. For all [x]; [y]; [z] 2 G=H ,

[x] ([y] [z]) = [x] [y z]

= [x (y z)]
= [(x y) z] since is associative
= [x y] [z]
= ([x] [y]) [z]:

ii) Identity element. If e is the identity element of (G; ), then [e] is the identity element of
(G=H ; ), since for all [x] 2 G=H ,

[x] [e] = [x e] = [x]; [e] [x] = [e x] = [x]:

iii) Inverses. Let [x] 2 G=H . Then the inverse of [x] is [x 1 ], since

[x] [x 1 ] = [x x 1 ] = [e]; [x 1 ] [x] = [x 1

x] = [e]:

iv) Commutativity. The operation is commutative because is commutative.

From i), ii), iii), and iv), we conclude that (G=H ; ) is an abelian group.

Example 36 In the abelian group (Z; +), for every n 2 N, the set nZ is a subgroup of Z. There-
fore, one can de…ne the quotient group

Zn = Z= nZ :

16
Exercise 37 Let R be the set of real numbers, and de…ne a binary relation R on R by

8x; y 2 R; x R y () x y 2 Z:

Since (Z; +) is a subgroup of (R; +), the relation R is an equivalence relation.

1. Determine the equivalence class [x] of an arbitrary real number x 2 R.

2. Show that
R=Z = f [x] j x 2 [0; 1) g:

Solution 38 1. Determination of the equivalence class of x.

Let x 2 R. By de…nition,

[x] = f y 2 R j x R y g
= fy 2 R j x y 2 Zg
= fx k j k 2 Z g:

Equivalently,
[x] = x + Z:
Thus, two real numbers belong to the same equivalence class if and only if they di¤er by an integer.
2. Description of the quotient set R=Z.
Let x 2 R., there exist unique integers k 2 Z and r 2 [0; 1) such that

x = k + r:

Since x r = k 2 Z, we have x R r, and therefore

[x] = [r]:

This shows that every equivalence class in R=Z has a representative in the interval [0; 1).
Conversely, if r1 ; r2 2 [0; 1) and [r1 ] = [r2 ], then

r1 r2 2 Z:

Since r1 r2 2 ( 1; 1), the only possible integer value is 0. Hence r1 = r2 .

Therefore, each equivalence class admits a unique representative in [0; 1), and we conclude that

R=Z = f [x] j x 2 [0; 1) g:

17
1.2.2 Group Homomorphisms
In this section, we consider two groups (G; ) and (H; ), with eG and eH their respective identity
elements.

De…nition 39 A map f : G ! H is called a group homomorphism from G to H if:

8a; b 2 G; f (a b) = f (a) f (b):

If f is bijective, we say that f is an isomorphism (of groups) from G onto H. In this case,
we say that G is isomorphic to H, or that G and H are isomorphic.

If G = H, we say that f is an endomorphism of G, and if furthermore f is bijective, we say

that f is an automorphism (of the group) G.

Example 40 Given the groups (R; +) and (R ; ), consider the maps

f : (R; +) ! (R+ ; )
x 7! exp x

We have, for all x; y 2 R

f (x + y) = exp (x + y) = exp x exp y = f (x) f (y)

De…nition 41 Let f : G ! H be a group homomorphism. The kernel of f is de…ned as

1
ker f = f (feH g) = fa 2 G j f (a) = eH g;
and the image of f is the set

Im f = f (G) = ff (a) j a 2 Gg:

Proposition 42 Let f : G ! H be a group homomorphism. Then:

1. f (eG ) = eH .
1
2. 8a 2 G; (f (a)) = f (a 1 ).

Proof. 1. Since eH is the identity element of and eG is the identity element of , we have

f (eG eG ) = f (eG ) = eH f (eG ):

As f is a homomorphism, we also have

f (eG eG ) = f (eG ) f (eG );

18
and since all elements in the group (H; ) are regular,

eH f (eG ) = f (eG ) f (eG ) ) eH = f (eG ):

2. Let a 2 G and show that f (a 1 ) is the inverse of f (a) in the group (H; ). Since f is a
homomorphism,

f (a) f (a 1 ) = f (a a 1 ) = f (eG ); and f (a 1 ) f (a) = f (a 1

a) = f (eG ):

1
Knowing that f (eG ) = eH , we deduce that (f (a)) = f (a 1 ).

Remark 43 From the …rst property, we deduce that eG 2 ker f .

Proposition 44 Let f : G ! H be a group homomorphism. Then:

1. The image of a subgroup of G is a subgroup of H.

2. The preimage of a subgroup of H is a subgroup of G.

Proof. 1. Let G0 G be a subgroup of G. We show that f (G0 ) satis…es the two conditions of the
subgroup criterion.
i) Since G0 is a subgroup of G, eG 2 G0 , hence f (eG ) 2 f (G0 ). Therefore, f (G0 ) 6= ;.
ii) Let a; b 2 f (G0 ). Then there exist x; y 2 G0 such that a = f (x) and b = f (y). By the second
property, we have
1 1
a b = f (x) (f (y)) = f (x) f (y 1 ) = f (x y 1 ):

Since G0 is a subgroup, x y 1
2 G0 , hence
1
a b = f (x y 1 ) 2 f (G0 ):

From i) and ii), we conclude that f (G0 ) is a subgroup of H.

2. Let H 0 H be a subgroup of H.
i) Since f (eG ) = eH and H 0 is a subgroup, eH 2 H 0 , hence eG 2 f 1 (H 0 ).
ii) Let x; y 2 f 1 (H 0 ). Then f (x); f (y) 2 H 0 , and since H 0 is a subgroup, f (x) (f (y)) 1
2 H 0.
By the homomorphism property,

f (x y 1 ) = f (x) f (y 1 ) = f (x) (f (y)) 1

2 H 0;

which shows that x y 1 2 f 1 (H 0 ).

1
From i) and ii), we deduce that f (H 0 ) is a subgroup of G.

Corollary 45 As particular cases:

Im f is a subgroup of (H; ); and ker f is a subgroup of (G; ):

19
Proposition 46 Let f : G ! H be a group homomorphism. Then:

1. f is injective if and only if ker f = feG g.

1
2. f is an isomorphism if and only if f exists and is a group homomorphism from H to G.

Proof. 1a. If f is injective, knowing that eG 2 ker f , we show that ker f feG g. Let x 2 ker f ,
then f (x) = eH . Since f (eG ) = eH , we have f (x) = f (eG ). By injectivity, x = eG , so x 2 feG g,
which shows that ker f = feG g.
1b. Conversely, assume ker f = feG g and show that f is injective. Let x; y 2 G. Then
1
f (x) = f (y) =) f (x) (f (y)) = eH
=) f (x) f (y 1 ) = eH
=) f (x y 1 ) = eH
1
=) x y 2 ker f
1
=) x y = eG since ker f = feG g
=) x = y;

which shows that f is injective.

1
2. We limit ourselves to proving that if f is an isomorphism, then f :H ! G is also a
homomorphism. Let x; y 2 H, then there exist a; b 2 G such that

x = f (a); y = f (b);

hence
1 1
a=f (x); b=f (y):
Then
1 1 1 1 1
f (x y) = f (f (a) f (b)) = f (f (a b)) = a b = f (x) f (y);
1
which shows that f is a group homomorphism from H to G.

Exercise 47 Consider the map

f : (R2 ; +) ! (R2 ; +); (x; y) 7 ! (2x y; x + 3y):

1. Show that f is a group homomorphism.

2. Compute ker f . Is f injective?

Solution 48 1. Homomorphism check:

Let (x1 ; y1 ); (x2 ; y2 ) 2 R2 . Then

f ((x1 ; y1 ) + (x2 ; y2 )) = f (x1 + x2 ; y1 + y2 )

= (2(x1 + x2 ) (y1 + y2 ); (x1 + x2 ) + 3(y1 + y2 )):

20
On the other hand,

f (x1 ; y1 ) + f (x2 ; y2 ) = (2x1 y1 ; x1 + 3y1 ) + (2x2 y2 ; x2 + 3y2 )

= (2(x1 + x2 ) (y1 + y2 ); (x1 + x2 ) + 3(y1 + y2 )):

Hence,
f ((x1 ; y1 ) + (x2 ; y2 )) = f (x1 ; y1 ) + f (x2 ; y2 );
so f is a group homomorphism.
2. Kernel computation:
The kernel of f is given by

ker f = f(x; y) 2 R2 j f (x; y) = (0; 0)g:

Solving the system 8

<2x y = 0
:x + 3y = 0

we …nd from the …rst equation y = 2x. Substituting into the second equation gives

x + 3(2x) = x + 6x = 7x = 0 ) x=0 ) y = 0:

Therefore,
ker f = f(0; 0)g:

3. Injectivity:
Since ker f = f(0; 0)g, the map f is injective.

Exercise 49 Consider the map

f : (R2 ; +) ! (R; +); (x; y) 7 ! 3x y:

1. Show that f is a group homomorphism.

2. Compute ker f . Is f injective?

Solution 50 1. Homomorphism check:

Let (x1 ; y1 ); (x2 ; y2 ) 2 R2 . Then

f ((x1 ; y1 ) + (x2 ; y2 )) = f (x1 + x2 ; y1 + y2 )

= 3(x1 + x2 ) (y1 + y2 )
= (3x1 y1 ) + (3x2 y2 )
= f (x1 ; y1 ) + f (x2 ; y2 )

21
Therefore, f is a group homomorphism.
2. Kernel computation:
The kernel of f is
ker f = f(x; y) 2 R2 j f (x; y) = 0g:
Solving the equation
3x y=0 ) y = 3x;
we obtain
ker f = f(x; 3x) j x 2 Rg:

3. Injectivity:
Since ker f 6= f(0; 0)g, the map f is not injective.

1.3 Ring Structure

De…nition 51 A ring is a set A equipped with two binary operations + and such that:

1. (A; +) is an abelian group (we denote its identity element by 0 or 0A );

2. is associative and distributive over +.

If, in addition, is commutative, we say that (A; +; ) is a commutative ring.

Conventions: Since (A; +) is a group, every element of A has an additive inverse, which we
denote by x for any x 2 A.
If the multiplication possesses an identity element, it is denoted by 1 or 1A , and we say that
the ring (A; +; ) is unital (or with unity).
In such a ring, we say an element is invertible if it has a multiplicative inverse with respect to
. The inverse of an element x 2 A is denoted by x 1 .

Computational Rules in a Ring

Let (A; +; ) be a ring. Then the following identities hold for all x; y; z 2 A:

Property 52 1. 0A x = x 0A = 0A ;

2. x ( y) = ( x) y = (x y);

3. x (y z) = (x y) (x z);

4. (y z) x = (y x) (z x).

22
Proof. 1. Let x 2 A. Then

0A x = (0A + 0A ) x = (0A x) + (0A x);

by distributivity of over +. Since all elements in A are additively invertible, cancellation yields
0A x = 0A . Similarly, one shows x 0A = 0A .
2. Let x; y 2 A. We show that x ( y) is the additive inverse of x y:

(x ( y)) + (x y) = x ( y + y) = x 0A = 0A :

Since + is commutative, this implies x ( y) = (x y). Similarly, one proves ( x) y = (x y).

3. and 4. The proofs rely essentially on the distributivity of over +.

We denote A = A n f0g, and for any x 2 A and n 2 N (where N = f1; 2; 3; : : : g), we de…ne:

n x = nx = x
| +x+
{z + x}; xn = x
| x {z x} :
n times n times

Proposition 53 Let (A; +; ) be a ring

1. For all n 2 N and all a; b 2 A, if ab = ba, then

! !
X
n 1 X
n 1
an bn = (a b) ak b n 1 k
= ak b n 1 k
(a b):
k=0 k=0

2. For all n 2 N0 and all a; b 2 A, if ab = ba, then

Xn
n k n k
n
(a + b) = a b ;
k=0
k

Proof. The proofs of 1. and 2. proceed by induction. We prove (1).

For n = 0, we have
0 0 0
(a + b)0 = 1 = ab:
0
Assume the statement holds for some n 2 N0 . Then for n + 1:
Xn
n k n k
n+1 n
(a + b) = (a + b)(a + b) = (a + b) a b :
k=0
k

Expanding this product gives:

Xn
n k n Xn
n k n Xn
n k+1 n Xn
n
k k k
a a b +b a b = a b + bak bn k :
k=0
k k=0
k k=0
k k=0
k

23
 Since b commutes with a, it commutes with every power of a (this is left to the reader to verify);
hence bak = ak b. Therefore:
Xn
n k+1 n Xn
n k n Xn
n k+1 (n+1) Xn
n k (n+1) k
n+1 k k+1 (k+1)
(a + b) = a b + a b = a b + a b :
k=0
k k=0
k k=0
k k=0
k

Reindexing the …rst sum by letting j = k + 1, we obtain:

X
n+1
n Xn
n k (n+1) X
n
n n
aj b(n+1) j
+ a b k
= an+1 + bn+1 + + ak b(n+1) k :
j=1
j 1 k=0
k k=1
k 1 k

n n n+1
Using the identity k 1
+ k
= k
for all 1 k n, we conclude:

X
n+1
n + 1 k (n+1) k
n+1
(a + b) = a b :
k=0
k

De…nition 54 Let (A; +; ) be a commutative ring. We say that y 2 A divides x 2 A, or that y

is a divisor of x, or that x is divisible by y, if there exists z 2 A such that x = y z.

1.3.1 Subrings
De…nition 55 A subring of a ring (A; +; ) is a subset A0 A such that, equipped with the
restrictions of + and , it is itself a ring.
If A is unital and 1A 2 A0 , we say that A0 is a unital subring.

We have the following characterization of subrings.

Property 56 A subset A0 A is a subring if and only if:

1. A0 6= ;;

2. 8x; y 2 A0 ; x y 2 A0 ;

3. 8x; y 2 A0 ; x y 2 A0 .

Proof. We know that A0 is a subgroup of (A; +) if and only if A0 6= ; and 8x; y 2 A0 ; x y 2 A0 .

Thus, for A0 to be a subring, it su¢ ces to verify that the restriction of is closed in A0 , i.e.,
8x; y 2 A0 ; x y 2 A0 . This completes the proof.

24
1.3.2 Ring Homomorphisms
Let (A; +; ) and (B; ; ) be rings, and let f : A ! B.

De…nition 57 We say that f is a ring homomorphism if for all x; y 2 A,

f (x + y) = f (x) f (y) and f (x y) = f (x) f (y):

If A = B, we say that f is a ring endomorphism of A.

If f is bijective, we say that f is a ring isomorphism.

If f is bijective and A = B, we say that f is a ring automorphism.

It is known that the image of the additive identity under a group homomorphism is the additive
identity of the codomain. However, the image of the multiplicative identity of the domain under
a ring homomorphism is not necessarily the multiplicative identity of the codomain. To see this,
consider in a unital ring (A; +; ) with 0A 6= 1A , the map f : A ! A de…ned by f (x) = 0A for all
x 2 A.
This counterexample leads us to the following de…nition.

De…nition 58 Let A and B be unital rings. A ring homomorphism f : A ! B is said to be unital

if f (1A ) = 1B .

Proposition 59 Let f : A ! B be a ring homomorphism. Then:

f is injective if and only if ker f = f0A g;

If A and B are unital rings and f is a surjective ring homomorphism, then f is unital.

Proof. The …rst statement follows from the characterization of injective group homomorphisms
between the additive groups (A; +) and (B; +).
For the second statement: Let y 2 B. Since f is surjective, there exists x 2 A such that
y = f (x). Then, using that f is a ring homomorphism,

y = f (x) = f (1A x) = f (1A ) f (x) = f (1A ) y:

Similarly, y = y f (1A ). Hence, f (1A ) acts as a multiplicative identity in B, and since B is unital,
we must have f (1A ) = 1B .

Proposition 60 The image (respectively, the preimage) under f of a subring of A (respectively,

of B) is a subring of B (respectively, of A).

25
1.3.3 Ideals
Let (R; +; ) be a ring.

De…nition 61 A right ideal (respectively, left ideal) of R is a subset I R such that:

1. I is a subgroup of (R; +);

2. 8x 2 R; 8y 2 I; y x 2 I (respectively, x y 2 I).

If I is both a left and a right ideal, we say that I is a two-sided ideal (or simply an ideal).
If R is commutative, every ideal is two-sided, and in this case we simply say ideal without
specifying left, right, or two-sided.

Example 62 Let (R; +; ) be a ring. Then I = f0R g is a two-sided ideal of R.

Example 63 In the commutative ring (Z; +; ), the set nZ is an ideal.

Proposition 64 Let I be a left (or right) ideal of a unital ring (R; +; ). Then the following are
equivalent:
1R 2 I () I = R () 9x 2 I such that x is invertible:

De…nition 65 Let (R; +; ) be a commutative ring. An ideal I R is called principal if there

exists x 2 R such that I = x R.
The ring R is called a principal ideal ring if every ideal of R is principal.

1.3.4 Notable Elements of a Ring

Let (R; +; ) be a ring.

Units.

De…nition 66 An element a 2 R is said to be invertible (or a unit) if there exists b 2 R such that
ab = ba = 1. The element b is denoted a 1 and is called the inverse of a. The set of all invertible
elements of R is denoted R .

Example 67

1. The multiplicative identity 1 and its additive inverse 1 are always units. More generally,
any root of unity in a ring R is a unit: if rn = 1, then rn 1 is a multiplicative inverse of r.

2. In the ring Z, the only invertible elements are 1 and 1.

3. In the rings Q, R, and C, every nonzero element is invertible (A nonzero ring R in which
every nonzero element is a unit (that is, R = R n f0g) is called a division ring)

26
 4. In the ring RR , the invertible elements are precisely those functions that do not vanish
anywhere on R.

5. In the ring Z[i], the invertible elements are exactly 1; 1; i; i.

Proposition 68 The set of units of R forms a group R under multiplication, called the group of
units or unit group of R.

Other notations for the unit group are R , U (R),

Example 69 The elements of the quotient ring Z=6Z are

Z=6Z = f0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5g:

All multiplications are performed modulo 6.

0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 0 3 0 3 0 3
4 0 4 2 0 4 2
5 0 5 4 3 2 1
The group of units of Z=6Z consists of the elements that are coprime with 6:

(Z=6Z) = f1; 5g:

Example 70 In the ring Z=nZ of integers modulo n, the units are the congruence classes (mod n)
represented by integers coprime to n. They constitute the multiplicative group of integers modulo
n.

Zero Divisors.

De…nition 71 A nonzero element a 2 R n f0g is called is called a left zero divisor if there exists
a nonzero x in R such that ax = 0. Similarly, an element a of a ring is called a right zero divisor
if there exists a nonzero y in R such that ya = 0.
An element a that is both a left and a right zero divisor is called a two-sided zero divisor (the
nonzero x such that ax = 0 may be di¤erent from the nonzero y such that ya = 0). If the ring is
commutative, then the left and right zero divisors are the same.

Example 72

27
 1. The rings Z, Q, R, and C have no zero divisors.

2. In the ring RR , consider the functions

8 8
<x; if x 0; <0; if x 0;
f (x) = g(x) =
:0; otherwise; :1; otherwise:

Then f g = 0, so both f and g are zero divisors. In general, a function f : R ! R is a zero

divisor if and only if f is not identically zero and vanishes at least at one point.

Example 73 From the multiplication table of example 69, we observe the following products:

2 3 = 0; 3 2 = 0;

3 4 = 0; 4 3 = 0:
Each of the elements involved in these products is nonzero, hence they are zero divisors.
The set of all zero divisors in Z=6Z is
f2; 3; 4g:

Integral Domains.

De…nition 74 A ring (R; +; ) is called an integral domain if:

1. R 6= f0g;

2. R is commutative;

3. For all a; b 2 R, ab = 0 implies a = 0 or b = 0.

Equivalently, an integral domain is a commutative ring with no zero divisors.

Example 75

1. The rings Z, Q, R, and C are integral domains.

2. The ring RR is not an integral domain.

Nilpotent Elements. An element a 2 R is called nilpotent if there exists n 2 N such that

an = 0. The smallest such integer p is called the index of nilpotency, i.e.,

ap = 0 and ap 1
6= 0:

Example 76 In the factor ring Z=9Z, the equivalence class of 3 is nilpotent because 32 is congruent
to 0 modulo 9.

28
Proposition 77 No nilpotent element can be a unit (except in the trivial ring, which has only a
single element 0 = 1). All nilpotent elements are zero divisors.

Proposition 78 Let (R; +; ) be a ring and let a 2 R be nilpotent of index p. Then 1 a and
1 + a are invertible, and
p 1 p 1
X X
1 k 1
(1 a) = a ; (1 + a) = ( 1)k ak :
k=0 k=0

Proof. Using the standard ring identities, observe that:

p 1
! p 1
!
X X
1 = 1p ap = (1 a) ak = ak (1 a);
k=0 k=0
Pp 1 k
which shows that 1 a is invertible with inverse k=0 a .
For 1+a, note that a is also nilpotent of index p, and 1+a = 1 ( a). Applying the previous
result to a, we get
p 1 p 1
X X
1 k
(1 + a) = ( a) = ( 1)k ak :
k=0 k=0

1.3.5 Quotient Rings

Let (R; +; ) be a commutative ring and I an ideal of R. Consider the quotient group (R=I; ),
and de…ne a binary operation : R=I R=I ! R=I by

_ b_ 2 R=I;
8a; a_ b_ = a b:

Property 79 (R=I; ; ) is a commutative ring. Moreover, if R is unital, then (R=I; ; ) is

also unital, with multiplicative identity 1_ R .

1.4 Fields
De…nition 80 A …eld is a commutative unital ring (K; +; ) such that:

1. 0K 6= 1K (the additive and multiplicative identities are distinct),

2. Every nonzero element of K is invertible under multiplication.

Historically, division rings were sometimes referred to as …elds, while …elds were called “com-
mutative …elds”. In some languages, such as French, the word equivalent to “…eld” (“corps”)
is used for both commutative and noncommutative cases, and the distinction between the two
cases is made by adding quali…catives such as “corps commutatif” (commutative …eld) or “corps

29
gauche” (skew …eld). In modern mathematical terminology, the term “…eld” refers exclusively to
the commutative case, while non-commutative division rings are called “division rings” or “skew
…elds”.

Property 81 Every …eld is an integral domain.

Proof. Let K be a …eld, and suppose a; b 2 K satisfy ab = 0. If a 6= 0, then a is invertible, so

multiplying both sides by a 1 gives b = a 1 0 = 0. Similarly, if b 6= 0, then a = 0. Hence, K has
no zero divisors and is therefore an integral domain.

De…nition 82 A sub…eld of a …eld (K; +; ) is any subset K 0 K such that:

1. 0K ; 1K 2 K 0 ,

2. K 0 is closed under the operations + and ,

3. (K 0 ; +; ) is itself a …eld with the same operations as K.

Proposition 83 A subset K 0 K is a sub…eld of (K; +; ) if and only if

0K ; 1K 2 K 0 and 8a; b 2 K 0 ; a b 2 K 0 and 8b 2 K 0 n f0K g; b 1

2 K 0:

Equivalently, K 0 is a sub…eld if and only if K 0 6= ?, K 0 6= f0K g, and for all a; b 2 K 0 with b 6= 0K ,

we have a b 2 K 0 and a b 1 2 K 0 .

Proof. ()) Suppose K 0 is a sub…eld. Then by de…nition, 0K ; 1K 2 K 0 . Since K 0 is closed under

addition and contains additive inverses, a b = a+( b) 2 K 0 for all a; b 2 K 0 . Since every nonzero
element in K 0 has a multiplicative inverse in K 0 , we have b 1 2 K 0 for all b 2 K 0 n f0K g.
(() Assume 0K ; 1K 2 K 0 and the closure conditions hold. Since 0K 2 K 0 , for any a 2 K 0 , we
have 0K a = a 2 K 0 , so additive inverses exist in K 0 . For a; b 2 K 0 , a+b = a ( b) 2 K 0 , so K 0
is closed under addition. For multiplication, take any a; b 2 K 0 . If b = 0K , then a b = 0K 2 K 0 . If
b 6= 0K , then b 1 2 K 0 by assumption, and a b = a (b 1 ) 1 . Since b 1 6= 0K , we have (b 1 ) 1 2 K 0 ,
and thus a (b 1 ) 1 2 K 0 because K 0 is closed under the operation x y 1 (take x = a (b 1 ) 1 and
y = 1K ). The multiplicative identity is 1K 2 K 0 , and 0K 6= 1K since this holds in K. Therefore,
K 0 is a sub…eld.

Proposition 84 Let (K; +; ) be a commutative unital ring. Then K is a …eld if and only if the
only ideals of K are f0K g and K itself.

Proof. ()) Suppose K is a …eld and let I K be a nonzero ideal. Choose a 2 I with a 6= 0K .
Since K is a …eld, a 1 2 K, and thus 1K = a 1 a 2 I. Then for every x 2 K, x = x 1K 2 I, so
I = K. Hence the only ideals are f0K g and K.
(() Conversely, assume the only ideals of K are f0K g and K. Let a 2 K, a 6= 0K . Consider
the principal ideal (a) = fa x j x 2 Kg. Since a 6= 0K , (a) 6= f0K g, so (a) = K. In particular,
1K 2 (a), so there exists b 2 K such that a b = 1K . Thus a is invertible. Since every nonzero
element is invertible and 0K 6= 1K (otherwise f0K g = K would be the only ideal), K is a …eld.

30
1.4.1 Characteristic of a Field
Given n 2 N0 , the quotient ring Z=nZ is a …eld if and only if n is prime, and in this case we have

n 1K = 1K + + 1K = 0K :
| {z }
n times

More generally, we have:

De…nition 85 Let K be a …eld. The smallest positive integer n such that n 1K = 0K , if it exists,
is called the characteristic of K. If n 1K 6= 0K for all n 2 N, we say that K has characteristic
zero.

Property 86 The characteristic of a …eld is either zero or a prime number.

Proof. Suppose the characteristic of K is a positive integer n, and assume for contradiction that
n is composite, so n = ab with 1 < a; b < n. Then

0K = n 1K = (a 1K )(b 1K ):

Since K is a …eld (hence an integral domain by the previous property), it has no zero divisors.
But a; b < n implies a 1K 6= 0K and b 1K 6= 0K (otherwise n would not be minimal). Thus their
product cannot be zero— a contradiction. Therefore, n must be prime.

Example 87 For a prime number p 2 N, the …eld Z=pZ has characteristic p.

1.4.2 Examples of Fields and Sub…elds

Example 88 (The Rational Numbers) The set Q of rational numbers with the usual addition
and multiplication forms a …eld of characteristic zero. This is the prime …eld of characteristic zero.

Example 89 (The Real Numbers) The set R of real numbers with the usual addition and mul-
tiplication forms a …eld of characteristic zero. Q is a sub…eld of R.

Example 90 (The Complex Numbers) The set C of complex numbers with the usual addition
and multiplication forms a …eld of characteristic zero. Both Q and R are sub…elds of C.

Example 91 (Finite Fields) For any prime number p, the set Z=pZ = f0; 1; : : : ; p 1g with
addition and multiplication modulo p forms a …eld, denoted Fp , of characteristic p. This is the
prime …eld of characteristic p.

Example 92 (Sub…elds of Complex Numbers) The set

p p
Q( 2) = fa + b 2 j a; b 2 Qg

is a sub…eld of R (and hence of C).

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1.4.3 Field Morphisms
De…nition 93 Let (K; +K ; K ) and (L; +L ; L ) be …elds. A …eld homomorphism (or …eld mor-
phism) is a function ' : K ! L such that for all a; b 2 K:

1. '(a +K b) = '(a) +L '(b),

2. '(a K b) = '(a) L '(b),

3. '(1K ) = 1L .

Property 94 Every …eld homomorphism is injective.

Proof. Let ' : K ! L be a …eld homomorphism, and suppose '(a) = '(b). Then '(a) '(b) = 0L ,
so '(a b) = 0L . If a b 6= 0K , then a b is invertible in K, so there exists c 2 K such that
(a b) K c = 1K . Applying ', we get '(a b) L '(c) = '(1K ) = 1L . But '(a b) = 0L , so
0L L '(c) = 0L = 1L , which contradicts 0L 6= 1L in L. Therefore, a b = 0K , so a = b. Hence ' is
injective.

Example 95 The complex conjugation map : C ! C de…ned by (a + bi) = a bi is a …eld

homomorphism.

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