Matrix Algebra
Matrix: A system of any numbers arranged in a rectangular array of m rows
and n columns is called a matrix of order m n . A matrix is usually denoted by
a single capital letter, namely A, B, C, … … or by the symbols aij , aij , aij .
The matrix of order m n is written as:
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
21
... ... ... ...
am1 am 2 ... amn mn
1 2 3 1
1 2 3
Example: A 2 3 1 ; B 2 ; C 1 2 313 ; D
.
4 5 6 23
3 1 2 33 3 31
Question: Distinguish between a matrix and a determinant.
Answer: The differences between a matrix and a determinant are as follows:
Matrix Determinant
1. A matrix cannot be reduced to a 1.A determinant can be reduced to a
single number. single number.
2. In a matrix, the number of rows may 2. In a determinant, the number of
not be equal to the number of columns. rows must be equal to the number of
columns.
3. An interchange of rows or columns 3. An interchange of rows or columns
gives a different matrix. gives the same determinant with +ve or
–ve sign.
1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3
[Link]: ; . 1 2
; 2 1 0 .
3 4 4 5 6 4. Examples:
3 4
2 3 4
Question: Define rectangular and square matrix.
Answer: Rectangular Matrix: A matrix A of order m n is called a rectangular
matrix if the number of rows and the number of columns are not equal i.e, m n .
1
1 2
1 2 2
Example: A ; B 3 4 .
2 4 1 5 6
Square Matrix: A matrix A of order m n is called a square matrix if the number
of rows and the number of columns are equal i.e, m n .
1 2 3
1 2
Example: A ; B 2 3 1
3 4 3 1 2
Question: Define Row and Column matrix.
Answer: Row Matrix: A matrix A is called a row matrix row vector if it
contains only one row.
Example: A 1 2 3 .
Column Matrix: A matrix A is called a column matrix or column vector if it
contains only one column.
1
Example: A 2 .
3
Question: Define Null matrix and Identity matrix.
Answer: Null Matrix: Amatrix, rectangular or square, each of whose elements
is zero is called a Zero matrix or Null matrix and is denoted by O.
0 0 0
0 0 0
Example: A 0 0 0 ; B .
0 0 0
0 0 0
Identity Matrix: A square matrix whose elements aij 0 when i j and
aij 1 when i j is called the Identity matrix or Unit matrix and is denoted by
I.
1 0 0
Example: I 0 1 0
0 0 1
2
Question: Define Diagonal matrix and Scalar matrix.
Answer: Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix whose elements aij 0 when i j is
called a Diagonal matrix. The elements aij when i j are known as diagonal
elements and the line along which they lie is known as the principal diagonal
or leading diagonal.
1 0 0
Example: A 0 2 0
0 0 3
Scalar Matrix: If in a square matrix A all the diagonal elements are equal to a
nonzero element a and all the remaining elements are equal to zero then it is
called a Scalar matrix.
2 0 0
Example: A 0 2 0
0 0 2
Question: Define Triangular, Upper Triangular and Lower Triangular matrices.
Answer: Triangular Matrix: A square matrix whose elements
aij 0 when i j or i j is called a Triangular matrix.
1 3 2 4 1 2 3
Example: A 0 1 2 3 ; B 0 2 4
0 0 5 7 0 0 3
Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A whose elements aij 0 when
i j is called an upper triangular matrix.
2 3 4 5
0 1 3 4
Example: A
0 0 2 5
0 0 0 7
Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A whose elements aij 0 i j is
called a lower triangular matrix.
3
2 0 0 0
3 1 0 0
Example: A
4 3 2 0
5 4 5 7
Question: Define sub-matrix of a matrix.
Answer: A matrix, which is obtained from a given matrix by deleting any
number of rows and columns or both, is called a sub-matrix of the given
matrix.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3
3 4
Example: If A 5 6 7 8 be a matrix then 5 6 7 ; etc. are its sub-
7 8
0 7 5 2 0 7 5
matrices.
Question: Define equality of matrices.
Answer: Two matrices A aij and B bij are said to equal iff
They are of the same dimensions i.e, they are of the same order.
The elements in the corresponding positions of the two matrices are same.
Question: Define order or dimension of a matrix.
Answer: The order or dimension of a matrix is given by stating the number of
rows and the number of columns in the matrix.
1 2 1 3
Example: A 4 3 2 0 is a matrix of order 3 4 .
2 1 0 4
Question: Explain the addition and subtraction of matrices.
Answer: Addition: If A and B be two matrices of order m n given by A aij
and B bij , then the matrix A B is defined as the matrix each element of
which is the sum of the corresponding elements of A and B i.e. A B aij bij ,
where i 1, 2, 3,....., m and j 1, 2,3,....., n .
1 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 5
Example: If A and B 4 5 then A B 3 4 4 5 7 9 .
3 4
4
Subtraction: If A and B be two matrices of order m n given by A aij and
B bij , then the matrix A B is defined as the matrix each element of which is
obtained by subtracting the elements of B from the corresponding elements of A
i.e. A B aij bij , where i 1, 2, 3,....., m and j 1, 2,3,....., n .
1 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 1
Example: If A and B 4 5 then A B 3 4 4 5 1 1 .
3 4
Question: Define conformable for addition and subtraction.
Answer: If the two matrices A and Bare of the same order, then only their
addition and subtraction is possible and these matrices are said to be
Conformable for Addition or Subtraction.
Question: Explain the multiplication of matrices.
Answer: If A and B be two matrices such that the number of columns in A is
equal to the number rows in B i.e. if A aij and B b jk are m n , n p
matrices then the product of the matrices A and B denoted by AB is defined as
matrix
C cik
n
aij b jk
j 1
In the matrix product AB, the matrix A is called the pre-multipliers and B is
called the post- multipliers.
1 0
Example: If A 1 2 and B then AB 1 4 0 6 5 6 .
2 3
Question: Define transpose of a matrix.
Answer: The matrix obtained from any given matrix A by interchanging its
rows and columns is called its transpose. The transpose of A, is denoted by
At or A' .
1 2
1 0 1
Example: If A 0 1 , then At .
2 1 2
1 2
NOTE: The transpose of the product of two matrices is equal to the
product of their transpose in reverse order, i.e. AB Bt At .
t
5
Question: Define determinant of a square matrix.
Answer: The determinant whose elements are exactly the same as those of a
square matrix A, is called the determinant of the square matrix Aand denoted
by A .
1 1 1 1
Example: If A ; then A 0 2 .
0 2
Question: Define singular and non-singular matrix.
Answer: Singular matrix: A square matrix A is said to be a singular matrix,
if the determinant of A is zero, i.e. A 0 .
1 2 1 2
Example: Let A ; then A 0.
1 2 1 2
Singular matrix: A square matrix A is said to be a non-singular matrix, if the
determinant of A is not zero, i.e. A 0 .
1 2 1 2
Example: Let A ; then A 0.
1 2 1 2
Question: Define Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric matrix.
Answer: Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A aij is said to be a symmetric
matrix if aij a ji for all values of i and j i.e. At A .
a h g a h g
Example: Let A h b f ; then A h
t
b f A .
g f c g f c
Here A is A symmetric matrix.
Skew-Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A aij is said to be askew-
symmetric matrix if aij a ji for all values of i and j i.e. At A .
0 h g 0 h g 0 h g
Example: Let A h 0 f ; then At h 0 f h 0 f A .
g f 0 g f 0 g f 0
Here A is a skew- symmetric matrix.
NOTE: Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of a
symmetric matrix and a skew-symmetric matrix.
6
Let A be a square matrix of order n and AT be the transpose of A. Then we
can write,
A
1
2
A AT A AT
1
2
where
1
2
A AT = Symmetric matric.
1
2
A AT = Skew- symmetric matrix.
Question: Define Idempotent matrix.
Answer: Idempotent matrix:A square matrix A aij nn is said to be an
Idempotent matrix if A2 A .
1 3 5
Example: A 1 3 5
1 3 5
Question: Define Involutory matrix.
Answer: Involutory matrix: A square matrix A aij nn is said to be an
Involutory matrix if A2 I .
4 3 2 1
Example: A ; B 3 2
5 4
Question: Define an orthogonal matrix.
Answer: Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix A aij nn is said to be an
orthogonal matrix if AAt I , where I is an identity matrix and At is the
transposed matrix of A.
1 2 2
3
3 3
cos sin
B
2 1 2
Example: A sin ;
cos 3 3 3
2
2 1
3 3 3
Question: Define Trace or Spur of a matrix.
7
Answer: Let Abe a square matrix of order n. Then the sum of the elements of A
lying along the principal diagonal is called the trace of A. We shall write trace
of A as tr(A).
cos sin
Example: Let A
sin cos
So that tr(A)= cos cos = 2cos .
1 2 3 3 1 2
Problem-01: If A 5 0 2 and B 4 2 5 then find A B and 2A B .
1 1 1 2 0 3
Solution: The given matrices are,
1 2 3 3 1 2
A 5 0 2 and B 4 2 5
1 1 1 2 0 3
1 2 3 3 1 2
Now, A B = 5 0 2 4 2 5
1 1 1 2 0 3
1 3 2 1 3 2
= 5 4 0 2 25
1 2 1 0 1 3
4 1 1
= 9 2 7
3 1 4
1 2 3 3 1 2
Again, 2A B = 2 5 0 2 4 2 5
1 1 1 2 0 3
2 4 6 3 1 2
= 10 0 4 4 2 5
2 2 2 2 0 3
2 3 4 1 6 2
= 10 4 0 2 45
2 2 2 0 2 3
8
1 5 8
= 6 2 1 .
0 2 1
1 4 0 3 2 1 3 2 1
Problem-02: If A 2 5 0 , B 1 2 3 and C 1 2 3 then find
AB and
3 6 0 4 5 6 7 8 9
BC .
Solution: The given matrices are,
1 4 0 3 2 1 3 2 1
A 2 5 0 , B 1 2 3 and C 1 2 3
3 6 0 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 4 0 3 2 1
Now, AB 2 5 0 1 2 3
3 6 0 4 5 6
1.3 4.1 0.4 1.2 4.2 0.5 1.1 4.3 0.6
2.3 5.1 0.4 2.2 5.2 0.5 2.1 5.3 0.6
3.3 6.1 0.4 3.2 6.2 0.5 3.1 6.3 0.6
3 4 0 2 8 0 1 12 0
6 5 0 4 10 0 2 15 0
9 6 0 6 12 0 3 18 0
7 10 13
11 14 17 .
15 18 21
3 2 1 3 2 1
Again, BC 1 2 3 1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9
3.3 2.1 1.7 3.2 2.2 1.8 3.1 2.3 1.9
1.3 2.1 3.7 1.2 2.2 3.8 1.1 2.3 3.9
4.3 5.1 6.7 4.2 5.2 6.8 4.1 5.3 6.9
927 6 48 369
3 2 21 2 4 24 1 6 27
12 5 42 8 10 48 4 15 54
9
18 18 18
26 30 34 .
59 66 73
1 2 3
Problem-03: Express A 0 1 2 as the sum of a Symmetric and Skew-
4 5 3
symmetric matrices.
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 2 3
A 0 1 2
4 5 3
1 0 4
The transpose of A is A 2 1 5
t
3 2 3
The symmetric matrix of A is,
1 2 3 1 0 4
1
1
2
A A 0 1 2 2 1 5
t
2
4 5 3 3 2 3
2 2 7
1
2 2 7
2
7 7 6
7
1 1 2
1
7
1
2
7 7 3
2 2
The skew-symmetric matrix of A is,
1 2 3 1 0 4
1
2
A At 0 1 2 2 1 5
1
2
4 5 3 3 2 3
10
0 2 1
1
2 0 3
2
1 3 0
1
0 1
2
1 0
3
2
1 3 0
2 2
7 1
1 1 2
0 1
2
Therefore, A 1 1
7 3
1 0 .
2 2
7 7 3
1
3
0
2 2 2 2
1 0 6
Problem-04: Express A 4 4 1 as the sum of a Symmetric and Skew-
0 9 6
symmetric matrices.
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 0 6
A 4 4 1
0 9 6
1 4 0
The transpose of A is A 0 4 9
t
6 1 6
The symmetric matrix of A is,
1 0 6 1 4 0
1
2
A At 4 4 1 0 4 9
1
2
0 9 6 6 1 6
2 4 6
1
4 8 10
2
6 10 12
11
1 2 3
2 4 5
3 5 6
The skew-symmetric matrix of A is,
1 0 6 1 4 0
1
1
2
A A 4 4 1 0 4 9
t
2
0 9 6 6 1 6
0 4 6
1
4 0 8
2
6 8 0
0 2 3
2 0 4
3 4 0
1 2 3 0 2 3
Therefore, A 2 4 5 2 0 4 .
3 5 6 3 4 0
Exercise: 1. Find the Symmetric and Skew-symmetric parts of the matrix
1 2 4
A 6 8 1 .
3 5 7
2. Find the Symmetric and Skew-symmetric parts of the matrix
1 1 1 4
3
1 1 0 1
A .
3 0 2
5
6
1 1 1 1
12