DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
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The function of carrying water from the treatment plant to the individual homes is
accomplished through a well planned distribution system.
A distribution system may, therefore, consist of pipe lines of various sizes for carrying
the water to the streets, valves for controlling the flow in pipes, hydrants for providing
connection with the water mains for releasing water during fire, meters for measuring
discharges, service connection to the individual homes, pumps for lifting and forcing the
water into the distribution pipes, distribution or service reservoirs for storing the
treated water etc.
Characteristics of a good distribution system
o It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places within the city with
a reasonably sufficient pressure head
o It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water for fire fighting
during such needs
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Characteristics of a good distribution system
o It should be cheap with the least capital construction cost
o It should be simple and easy to operate and repair, thereby keeping the RMO cost and
troubles to minimum
o It should be safe against any future pollution of water
o It should be safe as not to cause the failure of the pipe lines by bursting etc.
o It should be fairly water-tight, as to keep the losses due to leakage to the minimum
Arrangement of distribution pipes
o The distribution pipe system consists of supply mains, submains, branches, and
laterals; usually made of cast iron and jointed by means of “spigot and socket joints”
o The service connections are made of galvanized cast iron pipes
o Sluice valves are placed along the straight length of the pipes at suitable intervals,
and at all the junctions and branching off points
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Arrangement of distribution pipes
o The drain valves are placed at all the low points in the distribution pipe system, so as
to drain off the water from the pipes for carrying out repair works
o The distribution pipes are generally laid on one side of the roads and the streets,
usually below footpath, and at about 2 m above and 3 m away from the sewers.
Generally, sewers runs on one side of the street and water pipes run on the other
side of the streets
o The size of the distribution pipes mainly depends upon the amount of flow to be
carried and the permissible loss in the pressure head.
o The smallest lateral should normally be not less than 8 to 10 cm in diameter, and if it
has to supply water to a fire hydrant, it should be at least 15 to 20 cm in diameter.
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Arrangement of distribution networks
o Dead-end system
In the dead-end system, there is one main supply pipe, from which originates a
number of submain pipes. Each submain pipe is then divided into several branch
pipes, called laterals. From the laterals, service connections are given to the
consumers.
This type of layout may have to be adopted for older towns, which have developed
in a haphazard manner , without properly planned roads.
The water supply mains have then to be taken along the main roads, and branches
taken off whenever needed, thus resulting in the formation of a number of dead
ends.
The dead-end system is also called the tree system.
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Advantages of dead-end system
➢ The distribution network can be solved easily, and it is possible to easily and
accurately calculate the discharges and pressures at different points in the system
➢ Lesser number of cut-off valves are required in this system
➢ Shorter pipe lengths are needed, and the laying of pipes is easier.
➢ It is cheap and simple, and can be extended or expanded easily
Disadvantages of dead-end system
➢ Since, in this method, water can reach a particular point only through one route, any
damage or repair in any pipe line will completely stop the water supply in the area
being fed by that pipe
➢ There are numerous dead ends in this system, which prevent the free circulation of
water
➢ Since in this system, the discharge is reaching a point from only one direction, the
supplies during fire fighting cannot be increased by diverting any other supplies
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o Grid-iron system
This system is also known as
Reticulation system. In this system,
the mains, sub-mains, and branches
are all interconnected with each
other.
This system is suitable for well-
planned towns and cities
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Advantages of grid-iron system
➢ Since the water reaches different places through more than one route, the discharge
to be carried by each pipe, the frictional losses, and the size of the pipe, thus, get
reduced
➢ In case of repair, a very small area will be devoid of complete supply
➢ Because of the different inter-connections, the dead ends are completely eliminated
➢ During a fire, more water can be diverted towards the affected point from various
directions
Disadvantages of grid-iron system
➢ This system requires more length of pipe lines, and a larger number of sluice valves
➢ Its construction cost is high
➢ The design is difficult and costlier, the calculation for determining the accurate sizes
of the pipes and the pressure at various key points is really tedious job
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o Ring system
➢ This system is also known as circular
system
➢ In this system, a closed ring, either
circular or rectangular, of the main
pipes, is formed around the area to
be served
➢ The distribution area is divided into
rectangular or circular blocks , and
the main water pipes are laid on the
periphery of these blocks
➢ This system is suitable for well
planned towns and cities
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o Radial system
➢ If a city or town is having a system of
radial roads emerging from different
centres, the pipe lines can be laid in
a radial method by placing the
distribution reservoir at these
centres
➢ This method ensures high pressure
and efficient water distribution
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Methods of Distribution
Gravitational System
➢ In this system, water is distributed to the consumers by the mere action of
gravity without any pumping
➢ For proper functioning of the system, the difference in head available between
the source and the and the localities must be sufficiently enough to maintain
adequate pressure at the consumer’s doorstep
➢ This method is most economical and reliable since no pumping is involved
➢ This type of system can be adopted for cities which are situated at the foot-hills
and source of supply is available somewhere in the hills at a sufficient elevation
Example: Mumbai has adopted this distribution system.
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Methods of Distribution
Gravitational System
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Methods of Distribution
Pumping System
➢ In this system, the treated water is directly pumped into the distribution mains
without storing it anywhere. For this reason, this is sometimes called pumping
without storage system.
➢ High lift pumps are required to operate at variable speeds to meet the variable
demand of water
➢ This method is generally not used because if power supply fails there will be a
complete stoppage of water supply, and if by chance a fire breaks out during that
period, it will bring a disaster
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Methods of Distribution
Pumping System
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Methods of Distribution
Combined Gravity and Pumping System
➢ In this system, water is pumped at a constant rate and stored into an elevated
distribution reservoir, from where it is distributed to the consumers by the mere
action of gravity
➢ This method thus combines pumping as well as gravity flow and is sometimes
called pumping with storage system.
➢ This method is invariably and almost uniformly adopted
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Methods of Distribution
Combined Gravity and Pumping System
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Distribution Reservoirs
Distribution reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are the storage reservoirs which
store the treated water for supplying during emergencies and also help in absorbing
the hourly fluctuations in the normal water demand
Functions of Distribution Reservoirs
➢ They absorb the hourly variations in demand and reduce the RMO costs and
improve efficiency
➢ They help in maintaining constant pressure in the distribution mains
➢ The water stored in these reservoirs can be supplied during emergencies such as
break down of pumps, heavy fire demands etc.
➢ They lead to an overall economy by reducing the sizes of pumps, pipelines, and
treatment unit
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Types of Distribution Reservoirs
Surface reservoirs
➢ Surface reservoirs are circular or rectangular tanks, constructed at ground level or
below the ground level. They are, therefore, also called ground reservoirs.
➢ They are generally constructed at high points in the city.
➢ In a gravitational type of distribution system, water is stored in the ground service
reservoir, and then directly sent from there into the distribution system.
➢ In case of a combined distribution system, water is first stored in a ground reservoir,
and then pumped into an elevated service reservoir from where it can be supplied
into an elevated service reservoir from where it can be supplied into the
distribution mains
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Types of Distribution Reservoirs
Surface reservoirs
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Types of Distribution Reservoirs
Elevated reservoirs
➢ Elevated reservoirs are rectangular, circular or elliptical overhead tanks erected at a
certain elevation above the ground level and supported on towers
➢ They are constructed where combined gravity and pumping system for water
distribution is adopted
➢ These tank could be made of R.C.C or steel or prestressed concrete
➢ R.C.C tanks are now-a-days preferred over steel tank as they are cheaper, do not
corrode, and requires less maintenance
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Types of Distribution Reservoirs
Elevated reservoirs
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Various important accessories of an elevated reservoirs
➢ Inlet pipe for the entry of water
➢ Outlet pipe connected to the distribution mains for the exit of water
➢ Overflow pipe discharging into drain gutters and maintaining constant level
➢ A float gauge or an indicator for indicating the depth of water which can be read
from outside
➢ A wash-out pipe for removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
➢ Automatic device to stop pumping when the tank is full
➢ Ladders to reach the top of the reservoir and up to the bottom of the reservoir for
inspection
➢ Manholes for providing entry into the tank for inspection purposes
➢ Ventilators for fresh air circulation
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Stand Pipes
➢ Stand pipes are a kind of elevated tank
without any erected towers for resting
the tank body
➢ They are thus tall cylindrical shells of
10-15 m diameter and 15-30 m height
resting directly on the ground
➢ They may be made of R.C.C or
preferably of steel containing 0.2%
copper
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Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs
The total storage capacity of a distribution reservoir is the summation of :
➢ Balancing storage
➢ Breakdown storage
➢ Fire storage
Balancing storage
The main and primary function of a distribution reservoir is to meet the fluctuating
demand with a constant rate of supply from the treatment plant. The quantity of
water required to be stored in the reservoir for equalizing or balancing this variable
demand against the constant supply is known as the balancing reserve or balancing
storage.
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Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs
Breakdown storage
➢ The breakdown storage or often called the emergency storage is the storage
preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps,
the electricity or any other mechanism driving the pumps.
➢ The amount of provisions to be made is very difficult to assess because it depends
on the frequency and extent of the failures
➢ Therefore, a lump sum provision is generally made for this storage. A value of
about 25 percent of total storage capacity of the reservoir or about 1.5 to 2
times of the average hourly supply may be considered as enough provision for
accounting this storage
➢ However, if the supply lines of equipment are expected to be out of operation for
long periods, higher allowances must be provided.
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Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs
Fire storage
➢ This provision takes care of the requirement of water for extinguishing fires
➢ The National Board of Underwriters of America recommends provisions for
extinguishing a serious fire of 10 h at a rate of about 10000 to 50000 lt/min for
towns with population more than 6000 and upto 2 lakhs
➢ For smaller communities, with population of 4000, 2000, and 1000, the provision
may be made for extinguishing a serious fire of 8,6, and 4 h, respectively
➢ In India, under normal conditions, we may store about 1 to 4 lt per person per day
as the necessary fire storage depending upon the importance of the city
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Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs
Fire storage
➢ This provision takes care of the requirement of water for extinguishing fires
➢ The National Board of Underwriters of America recommends provisions for
extinguishing a serious fire of 10 h at a rate of about 10000 to 50000 lt/min for
towns with population more than 6000 and upto 2 lakhs
➢ For smaller communities, with population of 4000, 2000, and 1000, the provision
may be made for extinguishing a serious fire of 8,6, and 4 h, respectively
➢ In India, under normal conditions, we may store about 1 to 4 lt per person per day
as the necessary fire storage depending upon the importance of the city
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Appurtenances in distribution system
o Fire hydrants
➢ A hydrant is an outlet provided in a water distribution main or a sub-main for
tapping water during a fire
➢ The available water pressure in a fire hydrant should be 7 to 14 m head of water
when pumped with a motor, 35 to 50 m head of water when the direct flow from
the hydrant is to be used
➢ Fire hydrants could be of two types: Post fire hydrant and Flush fire hydrant
➢ The essential difference between these two types of hydrant is that whereas the
post fire hydrant remains standing above the ground like a post by about 0.9 to 1.2
m; the flush fire hydrant is installed underground in a brick or cast-iron chamber
➢ Flush fire hydrants are widely used in India, whereas post fire hydrants are more
commonly used in countries like America
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Post Fire hydrants
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Flush Fire hydrants
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o Water meters
➢ Water meters are the devices which are used for measuring the quantity of water
flowing under pressure through a pressure conduit
➢ This measurement of the quantity of water supplied to the general public is
necessary, in order to charge the consumers according to the quantity of water
supplied to them
➢ Water meters are mainly of two types: Velocity meters or Inferential meters and
positive meters or displacement meters
➢ Velocity meters basically measures the horizontal velocity of water flowing through
a pipe, this measured velocity when multiplied by the area of flow cross-section will
give the discharge
➢ Positive meters directly measures the quantity of water passing through them by
counting the number of times the meter chamber is filled and emptied.
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Velocity meters
o Rotary meters
o Venturi-meters
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Positive meters
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Gates and Valves in Pipe Lines
➢ A large number of different types of valves are required for the proper functioning of
the pipe line
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o Gate valves or Sluice valves
➢ Gate valves are used to regulate the
flow of water through the pipes
➢ Gate valves are usually placed at the
summit of the pressure conduit,
because when so placed at these
points of low pressure, they can be
made of cheaper and less stronger
material
➢ These valves are generally made of
cast iron with brass, bronze or
stainless steel mountings
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o Air valves
➢ Air valves are the special kind of valves which are generally placed along the pipe
line at summits on both sides of the sluice valves and also on the downstream side
of all other sluice valves
➢ Air valves are of two types:
Air inlet valve
Air relief valve
➢ Nowadays such type of valves
are used which can serve as
inlet as well as relief valve
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➢ The most commonly used air valve is the single orifice air valve acting as air inlet as
well as air relief valve
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o Blow off valves or Drain valves or Scour valves
➢ In order to remove the entire water from within a pipe, small gated offtakes are
provided at low points.
➢ These valves are necessary at low points for completely emptying the pipe for
inspection , repairs, etc.
o Pressure-relief valves
➢ Water hammer pressure in pressure
pipes can be reduced by using pressure
relief valves
➢ Such a valve is adjusted to open out
automatically as soon as the pressure in
the pipe exceeds a certain fixed value
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o Check valves or Reflux valves
➢ Check valves are also sometimes called
non-return valves because they prevent
water to flow back in the opposite
direction.
➢ They may be installed on the delivery
side of the pumping set, so as to prevent
the back flow of stored or pumped
water, when the pump is stopped.
➢ Check valves are also installed on pump
discharges to reduce water hammer
forces on the pump
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Manholes
➢ Manholes are provided at suitable intervals along the pipe line, so as to help its
laying, and to serve for inspections and repairs
➢ They are provided on large pipe lines bringing water from the sources to the city
at intervals of about 300 to 600 m
Insulation joints
➢ Insulation joints are provided along the pipeline at suitable intervals along the
pipe line, so as to insulate the pipe against the flow of stray electric currents, and
thus, to check electrolysis.
➢ Rubber gaskets or rings can be provided as insulators
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Anchorages
➢ Pipes try to pull apart and get out of alignment at bends and other points of
unbalanced pressures
➢ In order to prevent the pipes from pulling apart, pipes are anchored by firmly
embedding these portions in massive blocks of concrete or masonary
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AIR POLLUTION
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AIR POLLUTION
Why?
Great London Smog (December 1952)
Killed 4000 people and affected 100000 The Great Smog of Delhi (November 2016)
Donora Smog
Killed 20 people and caused
problems to 6000 people Malaysian Haze 2005
Declared as Air Quality Emergency
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AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological molecules, etc. into the air
that is harmful to human health and the environment
Sources
➢ Natural: Volcano, Forest Fire
➢ Human Activities: Industrial emissions,
Vehicular emissions, Mining activities, Open
burning of waste
Types of air pollutants
➢ Primary Pollutants
➢ Secondary Pollutants
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Primary Pollutants
Pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants
CO is produced from incomplete combustion of organics,
SPM could be of the following type: aerosol, Carbon vehicular emission
mist, dust, smoke, fume, plume, fog, smog oxides
Main sources are industrial processes, road
traffic, power plants, domestic burning,
construction work Nitrogen
SPM Mainly found in vehicular
oxides emissions
Primary
Pollutant
Sulfur
VOCs Produced from the burning of sulfur-containing
Paints, varnish, wood preservatives, wax, oxides
aerosol sprays fossil fuels
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Secondary Pollutants
Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical reactions
take place among the primary pollutants are called secondary pollutants
Example of Secondary
Pollutants
➢ Ozone
➢ Sulfuric acid
➢ Peroxy acetyl nitrates
(PANs)
➢ Formaldehydes
Example of Photochemical smog
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Secondary Pollutants
Photochemical Smog
Smog = Smoke + Fog
Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants that are formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight, creating a brown haze above cities.
Favourable Atmospheric conditions
➢ Presence of high concentrations of hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides
➢ Air Stagnation which prevents the dispersion of
pollutants
➢ Abundant sunlight
Example
The Great London Smog (1952)
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EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION
Effect on human health
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EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION
Effect on plants
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EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION
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EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION
Effect on Materials
➢ Deteriorates metallic surface, glass surface, painted surface, building stones, rubber surface
➢ Can damage paper and fabrics
➢ Presence of fluorine can cause etching of glass on windows
Effect on Aquatic Life
➢ Mixing up of air pollutants with rain can cause acidity in freshwater lakes affecting aquatic life
Effect on Regional and Global Environment
➢ Acid rain
➢ Ozone layer depletion
➢ Global warming
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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Natural Self-Cleansing Properties of the Environment
The atmosphere possesses self-cleansing properties, which continuously clean and remove the
pollutants (up to a certain) extent from the atmosphere through natural processes such as:
➢ Dispersion
➢ Gravitational settling
➢ Absorption
➢ Rainout
➢ Adsorption
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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Engineered Devices to control Air Pollution
Centrifugal collectors
Gravitational settling chambers
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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Engineered Devices to control Air Pollution
Wet Scrubbers
Venturi-scrubbers
Spray Tower
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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Engineered Devices to control Air Pollution
Electrostatic Precipitator
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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Engineered Devices to control Air Pollution
Fabric Filters
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