SHIP CONSTRUCTION

BASIC COMPONENTS :-
1. Shipbuilding Steel : Shipbuilding steel are of special type of Mild steel with carbon content of 0.15-
0.23% , reasonably high manganese content and a minimum of sulphur and phosphorus and is
primarily used for welded ship construction purposes.
There are five grades of steel A to E used in shipbuilding. The grades varies as per composition of
alloying elements. The classification society rules specify the grade to be used as per thickness of plate
and hardness of material as required.
In large oil tankers, ore carriers etc. High tensile steels is used. These steels with higher strength than
mild steel permit a reduction in thickness of the deck, bottom shell and longitudinal framing over mid-
ship section and a subsequent saving in weight. It has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Both mild steel and high tensile steel plates and sections used in shipbuilding are to be produced at
factories approved and certified by classification society.
Various rolled steel sections and built sections ( pre-fabricated ones ) are used in ship construction and
are illustrated below.

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2. Basic construction : The keel, centre girder and centreline strake of the tank top plating form a very
strong I-shaped girder which form the backbone of the ship.
The width and thickness of the keel strake is to be maintained over its whole length. In an average
general cargo ship the width might be of the order of 1400mm and thickness 20mm as per
Classification Society requirement under whose supervision ship is being built.

3. Duct keel : A duct keel, consists of twin centre girders and is often fitted forward of engine room
forward bulkhead ahead of bottom most platform. Most of bottom pipelines ( bilge/ballast/fuel )
leading to tanks and holds pass through it. It may have entrance at forward and aft part with
ventilation arrangement with trunkings in forward and aft part of mid-ship areas.
The sides are not more than 2M apart and the inner bottom and keel plate are to be suitably stiffened
to maintain of strength transversely.

4. Bilge keels : Bilge keels are fitted at the turn of the bilge to help damp the rolling motion of the ship.
They extend over a portion of the midship length of the ship and are positioned to minimize drag. It is
also adds to the longitudinal strength at the bilge radius.
It is made of steel plate of stiffened free edge or a section such as a bulb plate. They are attached to a
continuous flat bar, rather than directly to the shell so that if damaged, shell plate will remain intact
.Their ends are gradually tapered and fitted on doubling plate which ends on a frame or other shell-
stiffening member.

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5. Framing Systems – Framing Structure : Structural framing systems are designed to withstand the
stresses caused by the loading/unloading of the vessel, its movement in a seaway and vibration.
Vessels can be transversely framed or longitudinally framed or a combination of the two called
Combined framing system.
There are advantages and disadvantages to the longitudinal and transverse systems. Combining of two
framing system reduces many of the disadvantages.

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 The fundamental difference between the two framing systems is the ability to withstand loads from
buoyancy, weight distribution and wave action. The thin shell plating can be susceptible ( prone ) to
buckling.
A transversely framed vessel of equal dimensions ( size ) will have one fourth ( ¼ ) of longitudinal
strength of a longitudinally framed ship. Hence, transverse frames are required to be thicker than
longitudinal in areas that are likely to be subjected to buckling.

Currently, small vessels tend to transversely framed and vessels larger than 100 metres in length
where global ( not local ) stresses are greater, they tend to be longitudinally framed. Combination
framing usually have longitudinal framings around the decks and the bottom of the vessel and
reminder of the vessel is usually transversely framed. In DB, they also have Solid Plate floors and
Centre and Side girders.
6. Transverse Framing : Transverse framing is the traditional method of construction dating back of the
days of wooden sailing ships. It’s strength lies in the closeness of the transverse frames ( by transverse
we mean running across the ship 900 from the ship’s fore and aft line – i.e port to starboard ).

7. Double bottom construction : Framing within the double bottom is either longitudinal or transverse.
The framing must be longitudinal in ships over 100 M in length & when the notation “ Heavy Cargoes “
is assigned to the vessel. These days, Modern ships are Compositely Framed ships usually having
longitudinal framings around the decks and the bottom of the vessel and reminder of the vessel is
usually transversely framed. In DB, they also have Solid Plate floors and Centre and Side girders.
Thickness and , measurement ( Scantlings ) of steel used is as per Rule book of Classification Society
and as per the trade for which vessel is going to be used for.

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 Transversely framed DB : In transversely framed DB , solid plate floors and bracket floors with
transverse frames provide main support for the inner bottom and bottom shell plating.

Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space in engine room, under boilers, transverse bulkheads,
toes of brackets to deep tank bulkhead stiffeners, in way of change of depth in DB, under the Grab use
area and for the forward 0.25 L ( i.e pounding region ). Elsewhere it’s spacing is not to exceed 3 m with
bracket floors at the remaining frames.

Intercostal side girders are to be fitted between centre girder and margin plate running as far forward
and aft as practicable. If ship’s beam is between 10-20 m, one side girder on each port and stbd side of
centre girder and two side girders for over 20 m beam are fitted. Additional side girders are provided
in the ER and pounding regions ( FPk ).

The plate brackets of bracket floors are flanged and their width is atleast 75 % of depth of centre
girder. The unsupported span of the frames at bracket floors is not to exceed 2,5 m and hence, to
reduce its span, angle bar struts are fitted.

Transversely framed vessels are slightly heavier than longitudinal vessels if designed to take same
weight and / or global load stresses. Smaller vessels that are less than 100 metres tend to use either
transverse or combined framing systems.

Note : The double bottom shown above has longitudinal bilges at each side between the side shell and
the margin plate. This is to collect water ( sweat ) for pumping out of the hold. Most modern vessels
now-a-days do not have margin plate. Instead, they have a continuous tank top which extends out to
the sides and bilge wells set into tank top are provided as drainage system.

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 Longitudinally framed DB : In longitudinally framed DB , solid plate floors are fitted at every frame
space under the main engine and at alternate frames outboard of engine seating, also under boiler
seats, transverse bulkheads, toes of brackets to deep tank bulkhead stiffeners. Elsewhere spacing of
plate floor is not to exceed 3.8 m except in the pounding regions where they are on alternate frame
spaces.
Between plate floors, flanged transverse brackets are fitted extending from the centre girder and
margin plate to the adjacent longitudinal at a spacing of not more than 1.25 m .
Intercoastal side girders are to be fitted between centre girder and margin plate running as far forward
and aft as practicable. If ship’s beam is between 14-21 m, one side girder on each port and stbd side of
centre girder and two side girders for over 21 m beam are fitted. Additional side girders are provided
in the ER and pounding regions ( FPk ). Where Length exceeds 215 m, the bottom longitudinal should
be continuous through the transverse bulkheads.
The unsupported span of the frames at bracket floors is not to exceed 2.5 m and hence, to reduce its
span, angle bar struts are fitted.

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 Components of Framing : As vessel is subjected to various type of stresses in both static and dynamic
conditions – Only shell plating can not withstand theses stresses. Hence, it needs to be strengthened
further and requires to be framed throughout it length.
Following strengthening members are used for above puposes :
1. Frame : They are running vertically up and down and are welded to ship side plating and can be
seen inside holds. They are combination of hold frame ( angle bar ) and Web frames ( T-bar ).
2. Beam : They are under decks running transversly.
3. Transverse : Transverse are much heavier in construction than beam and run transversely under
the deck and on bottom plating but not in DB. They are attached to Transverse Web frame.
4. Floors : Found only in double bottoms running transversely. Also called Solid Plate floors or only
Plate Floors.
5. Stringers : It runs horizontally in Fore and aft directions and it is found on side plating and and on
longitudinal bulkheads. Most common being in wing tanks and in Fore Peak Tank ( Panting and
pounding arrangements ).
6. Longitudinals : It is running vertically fore and aft – as far as possible . It is found in longitudinally
framed ships, under decks, on side plating, on longitudinal bulkheads, on bottom plating and
under tank top in DBs.
7. Girders : They are found under decks and in DB tanks ( i.e Centre and side girders ). It is deep and
heavy in construction and are important longitudinal strengthening members of the ship. It runs
vertically fore and aft.
8. Scantlings : is a measurement of prescribed size, dimensions or cross sectional areas as given in
Classification Societies Rule book.
9. Beam Knees : The deck beams are connected to the frames on the side by means of beam knees
Which are triangular in shape and can be flanged at one end. They are very efficient connections as
compared to joining the beam directly to the frame.

Transverse Framing : This method of framing is used in vessels of lesser length ( < 100m ) where
longitudinal bending moments are not excessive. Under the deck, deck beams are fitted at every frame
space. On the side plating, frames are fitted to stiffen the plating. On top, both are joined by beam
knees. The bottom structure usually consists of a cellular double bottom as described in Transversely
framed DB.
Longitudinal Framing : This method of framing is used in longer ships of length more than 100m to
withstand the longitudinal bending moments which is excessive on longer ships.
The main feature of strengthening in this system is the longitudinals ( L-shaped stiffeners ) running full
length from fore and aft under the deck, on the side and bottom plating, under the tank top in double
bottom tanks and on the longitudinal bulkheads.
In addition to longitudinals –
1. Decks are stiffened with centre and two or more side girders. Deck Transverse are fitted at every 3
- 5 meters which support the longitudinal.
2. Side platings are stiffened with Vertical Web frames every 3 – 5 meters and Stringers at 2-3 places
depending on the depth of the tank or hold.
3. Double bottoms are framed Longitudinally as described in Longitudinally framed DB.
Composite Framing : The development of this framing is used for mainly bulk carriers, large general
cargo ships, containers ships, and some medium size tankers. The Compositely framed ship seeks to
combine the strength advantage of both longitudinal and transverse framing systems.

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 Under the decks are on the bottom plating, the vessel is longitudinally framed as these parts are
subjected to excessive longitudinal bending moments.
The side plating where longitudinal stresses are less is transversely framed.

Deck plating :
The main deck, also called weather deck forms part of watertight skin of the vessel. It also contributes
to the longitudinal strength of the vessel. It is cambered to facilitate the draining of water from the
decks in heavy weather.
Decks are arranged in plates panels with transverse or longitudinal stiffening, and local stiffening in

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 way of large openings such as Hatchways. Longitudinal deck girders may support the transverse
framing and deep transverses the longitudinal framings.

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 Side and Bottom shell plating : The shell plating consists of the side and bottom plating.
The plates are arranged in fore and aft lines around the hull and are called ‘ Strakes ’ – bottom most
adjacent to keel being “ Garboard Strake ” and topmost joining the deck being call “ Sheer Strake ” .
For identification – they are lettered starting with the strake adjacent to the keel as “ A “. The
separate plate in the strakes may be numbered, usually from aft, thus “C 12 ” port will be 12th plate
from the aft in the 3rd strake up from the keel on the port side.
The thickness of the plating depends, in general on the length of the ship and frame spacing. The
midship thickness is to be maintained for 0.4L amidships and tapers gradually to an end thickness at at
0.075L from the ends at the deck and at the ends for the shell.
“15.5” shown on the diagram denotes the thickness in mm of the plating used.
The upper edge of the sheer strake is to be dressed smooth and kept free of
isolated welded fittings or connections. Where it is to be rounded, its radius should not be less than 15
times of the thickness of the plate.
At the ends of the ship, particularly at the bow, the width of the strakes decreases
and it is often desirable to merge two strakes into one, this being done by a “ Stealer Plate ”. Also at
the ends of the ship where the keel plate terminates at the stem and stern frame these plates are
called as the “ Shoe ” and “ Coffin ” respectively.

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 Bulkheads and Stiffeners :
Transverse Bulkheads : Transverse bulkheads divide vessel into a number of watertight compartments
which has following important functions :
1. They provide strength and large structural support which spreads stresses on hull to larger area
and resists against tendency of deformation due to Racking forces.
2. It prevents fire from spreading to larger area.
3. It prevents against total flooding of vessel if hull is breached.
All ships have a collision bulkhead ( not less than 0.05L and not more than 0.08L ) from fore end of
loadline, an after peak bulkhead enclosing sterntube in a watertight compartment and a bulkhead at
each end of the machinery space.
Additional watertight bulkheads are fitted on larger ships as per subdivision requirement of SOLAS and
Load line conventions.
All watertight bulkheads must extend upto uppermost continuous deck or upto freeboard deck as per
loadline rules.

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 The plating of a flat transverse bulkhead is generally welded in horizontal strakes. This practice is
followed because the thickness of bulkhead plating increases with depth to withstand the water
pressure in case compartment is flooded.
Vertical stiffners are fitted to transverse watertight bulkheads in form of welded inverted angle bar or
offset bulb plates. The size of stiffener depends on the unsupported length, stiffener spacing and the
rigidity of the end connections.
Corrugated plating is frequently used for bulkheads, particularly in tankers, bulk carriers and tank
spaces of other ships. Such bulkheads afford considerable saving in welding, less chances of corrosion
and easier for tank cleaning.
Superstructure bulkheads are occasionally swedged, the spacing of the vertical swedges being similar
to that of stiffeners.
Both corrugation and swedges are arranged in the vertical direction like the stiffeners on transverse
bulkheads. Since, the plating is swedged or corrugated prior to its fabrication, the bulkhead will be
plated vertically with a uniform thickness equivalent to that required at the base of bulkhead. In case
of longitudinal corrugated bulkheads corrugation and swedges are arranged in horizontal direction like
the stiffeners to support against longitudinal movement of bulkhead.

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 Pillars and Girders : The pillars and girders is fitted to transmit the deck load to the bottom structure
which is supported by the upthrust of the water pressure. They also tie the ship vertically and prevent
the flexing of the decks in response to various stresses on the hull due to water pressure and heavy
weather. Mostly, pillars are arranged directly above the intersection of solid floors and girders with
doubling plate plates fitted at the head and heel. Pillars are to be fitted below deck houses, windlasses,
winches etc. to give the necessary support.

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Coamings : Coamings are fitted on deck in way of large openings on deck such as Hatchways, hatch
entrances and booby hatches on forecastle and aft decks. They must be made of steel and at least of
600mm height – provided with watertight closing devices. The deck opening corners should be well-
rounded to reasonable radius, or elliptical or parabolic in shape to avoid concentration of stresses at these
points. Special arrangements must be made to compensate for the structural discontinuities caused by
these large openings. More detail with diagram when we discuss Hatch Coaming.
Bulwarks and guard rails : Bulwarks and guard rails are provided on weather deck for safety of personnel
from falling overboard and do not contribute to the structural strength of the ship. Its construction and
height requirement are governed by the International Load line rules.
They Bulwark consists of a vertical plate of at least 1 m height stiffened at its top often by a bulb angle or
plate and is supported by stays from the deck. Spacing of stays should not exceed 1.2m on tankers and
bulk carriers with reduced freeboard and 1.83m on other ships.
Freeing Ports are cut in bulwarks, forming wells on decks in order that water may quickly drain away.
Some ships with low freeboard and large shipping seas are provided with guard rails instead of bulwark.

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Breast hook : Breast hooks are horizontal plate web ( triangular in shape ) fitted to support the radiused
( given round shape ) stem plate joint with shell plating coming from port and stbd side. Breast hooks are
supported by stiffeners from underside. A number of breast hooks are fitted starting from lower part of
stem to the under side of Fore Castle deck.

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