INTRODUCTION TO NTM ( BME755A )
Module 5
All Answer are from the prescribed VTU textbook for the above course
LBM
1 Illustrate the working principle of Laser Beam Machining with a neat sketch. And explain its
equipment’s.
Working Principle of Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
Laser Beam Machining (LBM) is a thermal material removal process that uses a high-energy, highly focused,
monochromatic laser beam to remove material from the surface of a workpiece. In this process, electrical
energy is first converted into light energy in a laser source, and then into thermal energy at the work
surface.
This laser beam is reflected back and forth between highly reflective mirrors, and a part of it escapes
through a partially reflective mirror. The beam is then focused by a focusing lens onto a very small spot on
the workpiece. The extremely high temperature at the focal point melts and vaporizes the material, and the
vaporized material is expelled, resulting in precise machining.
Equipment’s Of LBM:
Ruby Crystal
Ruby crystal is the active laser medium and is generally a cylindrical shaped crystal made of aluminium
oxide with chromium ions. The ends of the ruby crystal are polished flat; one end is fully silvered and the
other is partially silvered with a small hole through which the laser beam emerges.
Xenon Flash Tube
The xenon flash tube surrounds the ruby crystal and contains inert xenon gas. When connected to a pulsed
high voltage power supply, it converts electrical energy into high-intensity light flashes, which excite the
ruby crystal to produce laser action.
Cooling System
A cooling system using water or liquid nitrogen is provided to protect the ruby crystal from the enormous
amount of heat generated. Effective cooling is necessary to maintain efficiency and prevent damage to the
laser components.
Focusing Lens
The laser beam emerging from the ruby crystal is passed through a focusing lens to obtain a very small spot
size. This increases the power density of the laser beam, making it suitable for machining operations.
2 Process Parameters, Advantages, Disadvantages and Application
Process Parameters of LBM
Power density and laser beam–workpiece interaction time are the most important variables determining
whether the beam will weld, cut, mark or heat treat.
• For rapid heating of a surface without melting, a highly focused warm beam producing power
densities of only
1.5 × 10⁴ to 1.5 × 10⁵ W/cm² is used.
• If melting is desired, as in the case of welding or cladding applications, power densities ranging from
1.5 × 10⁵ to 1.5 × 10⁶ W/cm² are used.
• Cutting and drilling action will occur for power densities ranging from
1.5 × 10⁶ to 1.5 × 10⁸ W/cm².
Advantages of LBM
1. Any material, including non-metals, and irrespective of their hardness and brittleness, can be
machined by laser.
2. Apart from cutting, drilling and welding, lasers can also be used for marking, scribing, heat-treating of
surfaces and selectively coated materials.
3. The process can be easily automated.
4. Very small amounts of material are removed.
5. Laser beam machining is a force-less machining process; hence very thin and fragile parts can be
easily cut.
6. Operating cost is low.
7. Machining is extremely rapid and the set-up times are economical.
Limitations / Disadvantages of LBM
1. High equipment cost.
2. Low thermal efficiency.
3. Low material removal rates.
4. Process is limited to thin parts.
5. Highly reflective materials are difficult to machine.
6. Difficult to drill exact round holes; tapers are normally encountered during drilling.
7. A blind hole of precise depth is difficult to achieve with laser beam.
8. Thickness of the material that can be laser drilled is restricted to 50 mm.
Applications of LBM
1. Used in automobile, aerospace, aircraft, electronic, civil structures, nuclear sector and house
appliances industries.
2. Used for cutting, drilling, welding of materials, marking, scribing, heat-treating of surfaces and
selectively coated materials.
3. Used for micro-machining of all materials such as steel, ceramic, glass, diamond, graphite etc.
4. Used in medical field for eye surgery and for making micro-components.
5. Used for engraving and marking of bar codes, logos, symbols and graphics.
6. Used in electronics industry for micro-fabrication of electrical interconnections (vias) in PCB.
EBM
1 Illustrate the working principle of Electron Beam Machining with a neat sketch. And explain its
equipment’s.
Principle of Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Electron Beam Machining is a thermal, non-traditional machining process in which material is removed
from the workpiece by the high kinetic energy of a focused beam of high-velocity electrons.
In EBM, electrons are generated from a heated tungsten filament (cathode) inside an electron gun. When a
high voltage potential is applied between the cathode and the anode, the electrons are accelerated to very
high velocities.
The accelerated electrons pass through a diaphragm and are focused into a very fine beam by
electromagnetic focusing lenses. Deflection coils are used to control the position of the electron beam on
the workpiece surface.
The entire process is carried out in a high vacuum environment to prevent scattering of electrons. When the
high-velocity electron beam strikes the workpiece, its kinetic energy is converted into intense heat, causing
localized melting and vaporization of the material. The molten and vaporized material is removed, resulting
in machining.
Equipment of Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
1. Electron Gun
Electron gun is used to generate and accelerate electrons. It consists of a tungsten filament (cathode), grid
cup and anode. It produces a high-velocity electron beam required for machining.
2. Tungsten Filament (Cathode)
Tungsten filament acts as the electron source. When heated electrically, it emits electrons by thermionic
emission.
3. Grid Cup
Grid cup is used to control the flow and intensity of electrons emitted from the filament. It helps in
switching the electron beam ON and OFF.
4. Anode
Anode is a positively charged electrode. It accelerates the electrons to very high velocity and converts them
into a high-energy electron beam.
5. Diaphragm (Aperture)
Diaphragm is a small opening that controls the size and shape of the electron beam. It allows only properly
aligned electrons to pass further.
6. Focusing Lens
Focusing lens is an electromagnetic lens used to focus the electron beam into a very fine spot on the
workpiece to achieve high power density.
7. Deflection Coils
Deflection coils are used to deflect and position the electron beam accurately on the workpiece surface
without moving the workpiece.
8. Workpiece
Workpiece is the material to be machined. Material removal occurs due to localized melting and
vaporization caused by the high-energy electron beam.
9. Work Table
Work table holds the workpiece rigidly and is usually grounded to ensure safety and proper electron flow
during machining.
10. Vacuum Chamber
Vacuum chamber houses the entire machining setup. A high vacuum is maintained to prevent scattering of
electrons by air molecules.
11. Vacuum Pump
Vacuum pump is used to create and maintain high vacuum inside the chamber, which is essential for stable
electron beam generation and transmission.
12. Optical Viewing System
Optical viewing system allows the operator to observe and align the machining area accurately during the
process.
2 Process Parameters, Advantages, Disadvantages and Application
Process Parameters of EBM
1. Beam Current
Beam current is directly related to the number of electrons emitted by the cathode. Increase in beam
current increases the energy per pulse delivered to the workpiece, thereby increasing the material removal
rate.
2. Pulse Duration
Pulse duration affects both the depth and diameter of the hole. Increase in pulse duration increases energy
per pulse and allows machining of thicker plates. Shorter pulse duration reduces thermal effects on the
material.
3. Lens Current
Lens current determines the working distance between the focal point and the electron gun and controls
the spot size of the focused beam on the workpiece. Higher lens current produces smaller spot size and
higher power density.
Advantages of EBM
1. Any material, hard or soft, can be successfully machined.
2. No tool wear problem.
3. Heat can be concentrated on a particular spot, resulting in effective machining.
4. EBM does not apply any cutting forces on the workpiece; simple work holding is sufficient.
5. Thin and fragile workpieces can be machined easily.
6. Workpiece is not subjected to physical or metallurgical damage.
7. Holes of any shape can be machined using beam deflection and CNC control with high accuracy.
Disadvantages / Limitations of EBM
1. High investment cost.
2. Skilled operator is required for machining.
3. Vacuum requirement limits workpiece size and production rate; regular maintenance is required.
4. Suitable only for small and fine cuts.
5. Low metal removal rate.
6. High power consumption.
Applications of EBM
1. Used for micro-finishing operations of thin sections.
2. Used in electron microscopes.
3. Used for drilling fine holes in fuel injectors and diesel engine nozzles.
4. Used for machining gas orifices in pressure differential devices used in nuclear reactors.
5. Used in aerospace industries for machining aircraft engine components.
6. Depending on beam intensity, EBM can also be used for heat treatment applications.