2.

2 Specific Energy, Critical flow depth and Critical Velocity

2.2.1 Derivation of Specific Energy
Consider steady flow of liquid along a channel with constant section and alignment as shown in
Figure 1.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1-1 and 2-2.

ρ1 α 1v12 ρ2 α 2 v 22
+ Z1 + = + Z2 + + hf (1)
w 2g w 2g

ρ
For any streamline at depth h over the channel bed, the sum of ( h + ) remains unchanged and
w
is equal to the depth of flow y. with that stipulation, equation (1) becomes

α 1v12 α 2 v 22
y1Cosα + z1 + = y 2 Cosα + z 2 + + hf (2)
2g 2g
Where z = height of channel bed above some horizontal datum
y = depth of liquid at the channel bed measured normal to the flow direction
α1, α2 = kinetic energy correction factor

1
 hf = energy loss in the flow direction and
∝ = Inclination of channel bed

Assumption:
For turbulent flow in an open channel, α1 and α2 are generally taken equal to unity. Further, the
channels are laid on a very mild slope and therefore, ∝ = 0 and Cos 0 =1. Then

v12 v2
y1 + z1 + = y2 + z2 + 2 + h f (3a)
2g 2g
Or
v12 v 22
y1 + = z 2 − z1 + y 2 + + hf (3b)
2g 2g
The Bernoulli’s energy is referred to an arbitrary horizontal datum. To eliminate the effect of the
slope of channel bed, the specific energy is given as in equation (4).

v2
E = y+ (4)
2g
Apparantly, the specific energy represents the elevation of total head line above the channel bed,
and may be thought of as the total energy per unit weight, the channel bed as datum. Although,
the Bernoulli’s energy is reduced by friction, the specific energy can increase or decrease from
section to section if bed elevation changes. However, for uniform flow the specific energy
remains constant along the flow.

Disch arg e Q q
Therefore velocity of flow v = = = (5)
Area by y
Where q is the discharge per unit width. Then specific energy

2
2
 q 
q2
=y+
v y
E = y+ =y+ (6)
2g 2g 2gy 2
Note: Equations (4) and (6) can be adopted to estimate specific energy

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Application: Specific energy diagram
For a given channel section and discharge, equation (6) can be represented graphically as plotted
in figure 2. (Specific energy E against depth of flow). Such a plot is called the specific energy
diagram, and it consists of similar curves each representing a given unit discharges. The
information that can be deduced from specific energy diagram (Figure 2) is itemized as follows

Description of the curve

1. Potential head plots as a straight line passing through the origin. If identical scales are
used for the two axes, the curve for potential head is inclined at 45o with each of the two
axes.
2. Plot for kinetic energy head is a parabola. Plot for specific energy is obtained by adding
kinetic energy head to potential head.
3. Specific energy is asymptotic to the horizontal axis for small values of y and asymptotic
to 45o line for high value of y.
4. Specific energy curve has a point of minimum specific energy at a certain depth yc which
is called the critical depth, the corresponding flow velocity is called the critical velocity.

3
 5. For every value of specific energy other than minimum, there are two possible depths of
flow y1 and y2; one greater and one less than critical depth yc. These two depths for the
same specific energy are referred to as alternate or conjugate depth.

2.2.2 Derivation of Critical flow depth and Critical velocity

The depth of flow for which the specific energy would be minimized for a constant flow rate
can be worked out by differentiating the specific energy equation: eqn. (6) with respect to y

q2
E = y+
2gy 2

dE d  q2 
=  y + =0 (Emin corresponding to critical depth)
dy dy  2 gy 2 

1
q 2
 q2 3
1− =0 → y =  
gy 3  g 

The depth of flow of water at which the specific energy is minimum is called the critical depth
and is denoted by yc.

1
 q2 3
Therefore the critical depth y c =   (7)
 g 
The velocity of flow at the critical depth is known as critical velocity, vc and its value is obtained
from the relations:
disch arg e Q q
Velocity = = =
Area by y
q q 1 1
vc = = 1
=q 3g 3
yc  q 2  3
 g
 

4
 q q 1 1
vc = = 1
=q 3g 3 or vc3 = qg (8)
yc  q 2  3
 g
 
Also, discharge per unit width q = vc * yc (8a)
Substitute (8a) into (8) we have

vc3 = v c y c g or vc2 = gy c

vc = gy c

Divide through by gy c

vc
=1 (9)
gy c

Which corresponds to Froude number of unity. Hence, a critical flow prevails when the Froude
number has a unit value.
N.B: The minimum specific energy Ec which corresponds to critical depth and critical velocity
takes the value
gy c y 3
Ec = yc + = yc + c = yc (10)
2g 2 2

Condition for maximum discharge for a given value of specific Energy

The specific energy at any section of the channel is:
Recall
v2 q2
E = y+ or E = y+
2g 2gy 2

→ q 2 = (E − y ) 2gy 2

(
q 2 = 2 g Ey 2 − y 3 ) (11)

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A plot of inter – relationship between unit discharge q and depth y for a particular constant value
of specific energy E gives the q – curve (Figure 3). Evidently flow rate is found to be maximum
for a particular value of flow depth. This value can be determined by differentiating equation
(11) with respect to y and setting the derivative to zero.

2q
dq
dy
(
= 2 g 2 Ey − 3 y 2 )
dq
2 Ey − 3 y 2 = 0 ( =0 for max imum disch arg e )
dy
3
E= y (12)
2

A careful comparison of equation (10) and (12) suggests that equation (12) represents the
minimum specific energy and y is the critical depth. Evidently, the condition for maximum
discharge for given value of specific energy is that the depth of flow should be critical.
3
Substituting for E = y c in equation (11), the maximum discharge can be obtained as:
2
3 
2
q max = 2 g  y c . y c2 − y c3  = gy c3 (N.B: at critical depth i.e minimum specific
2 
energy, the discharge is maximum)
q max = gy c3 (13)

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A comparison of equation (10) with (12) and that of equation (7) with (13) reveals that at critical
depth, the discharge is maximum for given specific energy and the specific energy is minimum
for a given discharge. Evidently, the condition for minimum specific energy and maximum
discharge are identical.

Depending upon the magnitude for relative values of depth of flow, mean velocity and Froude
number, it is possible to categorize the channel flow as:
(i) Super critical / rapid / shooting flow: y <yc; v>vc and Fr >1
Specific energy of the section increases due to increase in kinetic energy. Slopes
producing such flows are called steep slopes
(ii) Sub-critical / tranquil/ streaming flow: y >yc; v<vc and Fr <1
Specific energy increases due to increase in potential energy. Slopes producing such
flows are called mild slopes.
Sometimes the rapid flow is called lower stage flow and tranquil flow being called
upper stage flow
(iii) Critical flow y = yc, v=vc and Fr =1
Flow velocity equals the speed of small gravity waves in shallow water caused by
local disturbances.

Example 1
A 3m wide rectangular channel conveys 12 m3/s of water at a depth of 2m. Calculate
(i) Specific energy and conjugate depth
(ii) Critical depth, critical velocity and minimum specific energy
(iii) Compute the Frond number and comment whether the flow is subcritical or
supercritical
Solution
Average flow velocity, v=Q/by =12/3*2 =2m/s
Discharge per unit width , q = Q/b=12/3= 4 m3/s/m

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 v2 22
(i) (a) Specific energy, E = y + = 2+ = 2.2038 m
2g 2 * 9.81
(b) Conjugate depth ,
q2
E = y+
2gy 2

42
2.2038 = y + by trial ; y=0.745 m
2 * 9.81 * y 2

(ii) (a) Critical depth yc,

1 1
 q2  3
 42  3
y c =   =   = 1.177 m
 g   9 .81 
(b) Critical velocity
vc = q/yc .= 4/1.177 = 3.398 m/s
or vc = gy c = 9.81 * 1.177 = 3.398m / s

(c) Minimum specific energy

3 3
E min = y c = * 1.177 = 1.765m
2 2
vc2 3.398 2
Or E min y c + = 1.177 + = 1.765
2g 2 * 9.81
(iii) Froude number
v 2
Fr = = = 0.453
gy 9.81 * 2

Hence the flow is in subcritical or tranquil state (Fr <1)

y
Note also that: > 1 or y > yc
yc

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Example 2
Find specific energy E, an expression for the critical depth in a trapezoidal channel with bottom
width b and side slope 1 vertical to N horizontal.
Solution
v2 Q2
E = y+ = y+
2g 2 gA 2

dE Q 2 dA
= 1− 3 * =0 (Q = constant)
dy gA dy

dA gA 3 gAc3
= = 2 For critical conditions (1)
dy Q 2 Q
For a trapezoidal channel: A=(b+Ny)y = by+Ny2.
dA
= b + 2 Ny = b + 2 Ny c for critical condition (2)
dy
From equation (1) and (2)

gAc3
= b + 2 Ny c
Q2

Q2 Ac3
= (3)
g b + 2 Ny

For critical condition; the specific energy becomes

Q2
E = yc +
2 gAc2

Q2
Substituting the value of from equation (3)
g

Ac3
E = yc +
2 Ac2 (b + 2 Ny c )

Ac
E = yc +
2(b + 2 Ny c )

(b + Ny c ) y c
E = yc + (4)
2(b + 2 Ny c )

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E (2b + 4 Ny c ) = y c (2b + 4 Ny c ) + (b + Ny c ) y c

2bE * 4 NEy c = 2by c + 4 Ny c2 + by c + Ny c2

Re-arranging in the form of a quadratic equation of yc.

5 Ny c2 + (3b − 4 NE ) y c − 2bE = 0

− (3b − 4 NE ) ± (3b − 4 NE )2 − 4 * 5 N (− 2bE )

yc =
2 * 5N

(4 NE − 3b ) ± (3b − 4 NE )2 + 40 NbE
yc =
10 N

A rectangular channel can be visualized as a special case of trapezoidal channel when N=0
Also a triangular (V-notch) channel can be visualized as a special case of trapezoidal channel
when b=0
Using equation (4)
When N=0 for Rectangular channel
(b + Ny c ) y c
E = yc +
2(b + 2 Ny c )

(b + 0 * y c ) y c
E = yc +
2(b + 2 * 0 * y c )

yc
E = yc +
2
3 2
E= yc and yc = E
2 3
When b=0 for triangular (v-notch) channel
(b + Ny c ) y c
E = yc +
2(b + 2 Ny c )

(0 + Ny c ) y c
E = yc +
2(0 + 2 Ny c )

yc y 5 4
E = yc + = yc + c = yc and yc = E
2(2 ) 4 4 5

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Assignment
Establish the following criterion for critical flow in an open channel.
Q A3
(i) =
g T

v2 A
(ii) = =D
g T
(iii) Fr = 1
Where T is the top width of the channel, D is the hydraulic depth and Fr is the Frond number

11