Give Examples of Similarities Between Development of Humans and Other Species
Most of what is known about human development comes from studying other animal species.
There are massive, complementary, and highly overlapping instructive events seen in species
like the mouse, chick, fruit fly, worms, sea urchins, zebrafish, and Xenopus (the frog) that are
incredibly relevant to human development.
Specific Similarities (Mouse and Chick):
• Both species start off small.
• Both exhibit a prominent head quite early.
• They display Central Nervous System (CNS) development, including the forming of a
spinal cord.
• They develop limbs.
• Both possess a tail in development (which humans eventually lose, ending up with the
coccyx).
• They have eyes and eye sockets.
• They display segmentation.
• They develop a mouth.
Molecular and Genetic Similarities:
• There are common or homologous genes and proteins across species.
• For example, if the mouse engrailed one gene is knocked out, the cerebellum fails to
develop. However, if the fruit fly (Drosophila) engrailed gene replaces the mouse
gene, the cerebellum is remade, demonstrating a connection between species
separated by about 500 million years of evolution.
• Common genes and protein classes are required for multicellular animals.
Transmembrane proteins, important for cell adhesion, signaling, and ion transport, are
heavily overrepresented in multicellular animals compared to unicellular ones. DNA
binding proteins are also overrepresented in multicellular animals.
Name the General Stages of Mammalian Development
Mammalian development follows several phases:
1. Pre-implantation phase: Occurs before the embryo implants into the uterine wall
and lasts a few days.
2. Gastrulation and Early Organogenesis: This is a critical period of about 2 to 8
weeks where all the organs begin their development.
3. Organogenesis: A long period involving the further development of organs, as most
do not complete their development in the early stage.
4. Foetal growth and development: During this last phase, the embryo primarily gets
bigger, although some organogenesis continues to take place.
What Are the 4 Essential Cellular Processes of Multicellular Organism Development?
Any aspect of development can be broken down by considering these four essential cellular
processes:
1. Cell proliferation: The process of growing from one cell (the fertilized egg) to the
adult body's total cell count, which is estimated to be around 37 trillion cells in
humans.
2. Cell specialization (or differentiation): The process by which the initial single cell
goes on to form roughly 220 different adult cell types, plus temporary cell types
created during development.
3. Cell interaction: This involves cells sending signals to each other (including physical
interaction) and processing the incoming information to decide how to respond.
4. Cell movement: A significant amount of cell movement takes place during embryo
development.
What Are the Stages of Preimplantation of Human Development and What Underlying
Events Occur?
Human pre-implantation development occurs over a small number of days:
• Fertilization: Sperm fertilizes the oocyte.
• Early Cleavage: The single cell rapidly divides into 2, 4, then 8 cells.
• 4-Cell Stage: The embryo's own genome switches on, as prior to this, it relies on
stored messenger RNA from the egg.
• 8-Cell Stage: All cells are considered totipotent (potentially able to form a whole
human).
• Compaction/Morula: Cells tightly join together, forming an outer ring of cells and
inner cells. This represents the first differentiation step, creating two distinct cellular
environments (outside vs. inside).
• Blastocyst: The tightly joined cells differentiate into two distinct lineages.
o The outer sphere of cells, called the Trophoblast (Trophectoderm) (about
120 cells), will form the placenta.
o The inner cluster of about 20 cells, called the Inner Cell Mass (ICM), forms
the embryo and all other extraembryonic tissue except the placenta.
o The ICM cells become pluripotent—capable of forming all cell types of the
embryo and adult, but restricted from forming the trophoblast.
o A large cavity called the blastocoel forms.
• Hatching and Implantation: The blastocyst orchestrates an escape from the
surrounding zona pellucida (flexible shell) around day six or seven, allowing it to
attach to and implant into the uterine wall.
What Is Gastrulation, How Does It Happen, and What Does It Lead To?
Gastrulation is the formation of the germ layers (or germ lines). It is considered a crucially
important time in a person's life.
Mechanism (How it Happens):
• It involves a specialized structure called the primitive streak (which includes a streak
and a node) forming in the developing embryo around day 7 or 8.
• Cells pour into the streak, through it, and come out underneath.
• The cells passing through are transformed (differentiated) into either the endoderm or
the mesoderm, depending on the time and location they pass through.
• The cells that do not go through the streak become the third germ layer, the
ectoderm.
• The process involves proliferation, specialization (differentiation), communication,
and movement.
Outcome (What it Leads To):
• Gastrulation leads to the establishment of the three primary germ layers. This is the
stage where pluripotent cells become multi-potent cells. These multi-potent cells
have restricted specialization compared to pluripotent cells.
What Are the 3 Germ Layers and What Do They Give Rise To?
The three primary germ layers established during gastrulation have specific fates:
1. Ectoderm (Ecto means outside): This layer gives rise to the central and peripheral
nervous system. It also forms the surface ectoderm (e.g., skin and the cornea). A
part of the ectoderm later pinches off to form the neural tube.
2. Mesoderm (Miso means middle): This layer gives rise to structures like bone,
muscle, blood, cartilage, and connective tissue.
3. Endoderm (Endo means inside): This layer gives rise to the linings of the
gastrointestinal tract and lungs. It also forms many internal organs, such as the liver
and pancreas.
Give Examples of Nodes and Streaks and What They Control in Terms of Development.
Nodes and streaks are critical inductive centers or "organizing centers" that promote the
further development of the embryo.
• Primitive Streak/Node (Human): This structure is crucial for gastrulation, enabling
cells to differentiate into mesoderm and endoderm layers as they pass through. It is an
organizing center that sends out morphogens.
• Dorsal Lip of the Blastopore (Organizer) (Frog/Xenopus): This small piece of
tissue controls the behaviour of neighbouring cells. When transplanted, it can direct
the formation of an entire second body axis (including CNS, eyes, and somites),
leading to conjoined twins.
• Polarizing Region (Chick Wing Bud): This region functions as a node and is a
critical inductive center for limb development. It releases the morphogen Sonic
Hedgehog in a gradient to specify digit identity (e.g., high concentration leads to digit
four).
• Notocord (Human/Embryo): This is an organizing entity derived from mesoderm
(cells passing through the primitive node). Its specific purpose is to instruct the early
development of the nervous system by sending signals upwards to the overlying
ectoderm to initiate the formation of the neural plate. Once its function is complete, it
disappears.
What Are Morphogens, and How Do They Work?
Morphogens are critically important inductive signals in development and are a type of
paracrine signalling molecule. Examples include Sonic Hedgehog, EGF, FGFs, TGF, and
BMPs.
Mechanism of Action:
• Gradient Formation: Morphogens are released from inducer cells and diffuse away,
forming a concentration gradient (high concentration near the source, lower
concentration further away). Their effects are typically short-range, happening over a
few hundred micrometres.
• Receptor Requirement: For a morphogen to be effective, a target cell must have a
specific receptor. If a cell lacks the receptor, it is "deaf" to the information.
• Concentration Determines Fate: Cells respond differently based on the
concentration they detect. For instance, a high concentration of a morphogen might
instruct a cell to differentiate into cell type C, while cells far away that see little or
none remain cell type A.
• Signal Regulation: Morphogen binding activates a signalling pathway, prompting the
cell to respond by differentiating, maintaining identity, dying, changing shape, or
moving.
• Inhibition: Morphogens can be made inactive if they bind to an inhibitor released by
other cells, preventing them from binding to their receptors. The ability to combine a
small number of morphogens in different concentrations and combinations allows for
the creation of a large variety of responses, which explains how complexity arises.
Describe How the Nervous System First Begins, From What, Supported by What, and
How Neurulation Takes Place in Humans.
Beginning of the Nervous System:
• The nervous system develops from a portion of the ectoderm.
• Its early development is supported and instructed by signals sent upwards from the
underlying notochord (a structure derived from the mesoderm).
• These instructions cause the overlying ectoderm to turn into neuroectoderm and
form the neural plate, which is the first morphological sign of the developing
nervous system.
Neurulation Process:
• Neurulation is the process where the neural plate rolls up to form the neural tube.
• The edges of the neural plate fold upwards and fuse together in a rolling up process,
often described as a "zippering" motion.
• The resulting neural tube pinches off from the surrounding surface ectoderm, resting
just beneath it.
• The spinal cord needs protection and stability. This protection is provided by
mesoderm cells called somites that begin to form the vertebral arches (bone) which
will surround the developing neural tube.
• The ends of the tube remain open initially, forming the cranial neuropore (front) and
the caudal neuropore (back). The cranial neuropore typically closes around day 24–
25.
The Formation of the Neural Tube...What Can Go Wrong?
Failure of the neural plate to properly roll up and fuse results in neural tube defects (NTDs).
• Spina Bifida: This involves defects in the spinal cord and/or the vertebrae
surrounding it.
o In the mildest form, Spina Bifida Occulta, one of the vertebral arches fails to
fuse, but usually causes no pathology related to the nervous system, although
there may be slight hairiness or skin coloration.
o More severe cases can involve the spinal cord coming out over a large section.
• Anencephaly: This condition results when the neural plate fails to roll up and/or the
cranial neuropore fails to close. Since the brain never develops, these babies are
stillborn.
• Folate Deficiency: About 60% of neural tube defects are associated with folate
deficiency. It is critical to have high folate levels before pregnancy, as deficiency puts
the developing fetus at risk. Folate binding protein is expressed in cells at the precise
spot where the neural plate is rolling up.