1.

BEGINNING THEORY – PETER BARRY

i. STYLISTICS: A THEORY OR A PRACTICE?

Peter Barry opens the chapter by addressing the controversial status of stylistics within the realm
of literary theory.

Definition: Stylistics is a critical approach that applies the methods and findings of the science
of linguistics to the analysis of literary texts. Its goal is to demonstrate how technical linguistic
features (like grammatical structure) contribute to a text’s overall meaning and effect.

The Debate regarding “Theory”:

- Many guides to literary theory exclude stylistics, implying it is not a “theory” proper.
- However, Barry argues it rests on specific theories about how literary language functions.

Similarities to Liberal Humanism (The “Traditional” Approach):

Empirical Bias: Like liberal humanism, stylistics focuses on detailed verbal analysis of
specific texts rather than establishing generalized theoretical positions.

Rejection of the “Floating Signifier”: Both approaches generally reject the post-structuralist
idea that meaning is inherently fluid, shifting, and indeterminate.

Differences from Other Theories:

Positivism: While other theories embrace “relativism” (the idea that there are only partial
viewpoints), stylistics remains “positivist”. It maintains faith in the accumulation of knowledge
through objective, empirical investigation.

Demystification of Literature:

- Stylistics treats literary language as data rather than a sacred or mysterious object.

- It assumes literary language is not a “special case” but can be analyzed just like political
speeches, advertisements, or expository prose.
ii. HOW DOES STYLISTICS DIFFER FROM CLOSE READING?

While both approaches involve detailed textual analysis, Barry outlines three specific distinctions
between the scientific approach of stylistics and the impressionistic approach of traditional close
reading.

1. The Nature of Literary Language

Close Reading: Emphasizes the differences between literary language and the everyday speech
community. It treats the text as an isolated “verbal icon” or aesthetic object with its own rules.
 Stylistics: Emphasizes the connections between literary language and everyday language. This
echoes Wordsworth’s view that poetic language should be close to the language actually used by
people, whereas close reading aligns more with Coleridge’s view of poetry as “heightened” or
specialized language.

2. Terminology

Stylistics: Uses specialized technical terms derived from linguistics (e.g., “transitivity,” “under-
lexicalisation,” “collocation,” “cohesion”). These terms are specific to the field and cannot be
used in casual conversation without explanation.
Close Reading: Uses lay-person’s terms that, while “bookish,” exist in ordinary language (e.g.,
“irony,” “ambiguity,” “paradox,” “verbal nuance”). These terms are not “technical” in the same
scientific sense.

3. Objectivity vs. Subjectivity

Stylistics: Claims scientific objectivity. It aims to provide procedures that can be learned and
applied by anyone, effectively “demystifying” criticism.

Close Reading: Relies on the individual critic developing “tact” and “sensitivity”. It often
treats the core of literature as a “mysterious impenetrable essence” accessible only through
intuition rather than strict method.

iii. Three Ambitions of Stylistics

Barry details three distinct goals that stylisticians aim to achieve when analyzing a text.

1. To provide “hard” data to support existing intuitions

Stylistics often aims to back up the “impressionistic hunches” of common readers with concrete
linguistic evidence.

Example: A reader might intuitively feel Hemingway has a “plain style.” A stylistician would
validate this by calculating that, for instance, “73% of the nouns and verbs used by
Hemingway… are without adjectival or adverbial qualification”. This explains how the effect of
plainness is technically achieved.

2. To suggest new interpretations based on linguistic evidence

Stylistics brings specialized expertise that allows the critic to see dimensions of the text
invisible to the ordinary reader, potentially altering the interpretation.

Example: Colin MacCabe analyzes Falstaff’s use of the word “womb” in Shakespeare. A
linguist knows that at the time of writing, “womb” was in semantic transition (meaning both
“stomach” generally and the specific female organ). This linguistic evidence suggests a sexual
ambiguity in Falstaff that a modern reader, unaware of the semantic history, would miss.
3. To establish general points about how literary meanings are made

Stylistics is interested in how literature works universally, not just in individual texts. It argues
that literary effect is created simultaneously by form and content.

Example: In Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles, the power dynamic is reinforced by grammar.
Alec (the oppressor) is frequently the grammatical subject (the doer), while Tess (the victim) is
the grammatical object (the receiver).

This implies that meaning is “overdetermined”—content is subliminally reinforced by

grammatical structure and syntax.

2. PAUL SIMPSON – STYLISTICS A RESOURCE:

i. Stylistics and its Purpose (The Three Rs)

WHAT IS STYLISTICS?

Definition: Stylistics is a method of textual interpretation where primary emphasis is

placed on language. It explores how the forms, patterns, and levels of linguistic structure
function as an index of a text's function and meaning.

Purpose: The goal is to explore creativity in language use. It enriches thinking about
language and offers a "substantial purchase" on understanding literary texts. It is also
reflexive, shedding light on the language system itself by observing how rules are bent or
stretched.

The Three Rs: Stylistic analysis is underpinned by three basic methodological principles:

Rigorous: Analysis should be based on an explicit framework, not disorganized or

impressionistic comments. It uses structured models of language.

Retrievable: The analysis uses explicit terms and criteria with agreed-upon meanings (a
metalanguage). This allows other analysts to follow the pathway of the analysis and
understand how conclusions were reached.

Replicable: The methods should be transparent enough that others could verify them by
testing them on the same text or applying them to different texts. This distances stylistics
from untested intuition.

II. 7 LEVELS OF LANGUAGE

Source: Unit A2 "Stylistics and Levels of Language"

Language is organized into hierarchical and interconnected levels. Stylistic analysis can identify
these levels to create a principled analysis:

Phonology/Phonetics: The sound of spoken language; how words are pronounced and the
meaning potential of sounds.

Graphology: The patterns of written language; the shape of language on the page (e.g.,
punctuation, paragraphing, visual layout).

Morphology: The way words are constructed; the study of constituent structures of words
(morphemes, prefixes, suffixes).
Syntax/Grammar: The way words combine with other words to form phrases and sentences.
Lexical analysis/Lexicology: The vocabulary of a language; the words we use.

Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences.

Pragmatics/Discourse Analysis: The way words and sentences are used in everyday situations;
the meaning of language in context.

III. GRAMMAR AND STYLE

Concept: Grammar refers to the rules of syntactic construction (the "bedrock"), not prescriptive
rules about correctness. It is organized hierarchically.

Rank Scale: Grammatical units are ordered by size: Sentence \rightarrow Clause \rightarrow
Phrase (Group) \rightarrow Word \rightarrow Morpheme.

Clause Structure (SPCA): The clause is the central unit of interest. Its four basic elements are:

Subject (S): Identifying who or what (usually comes before the verb).

Predicator (P): The verb phrase; the process or action.

Complement (C): Completes the meaning (answers "who" or "what" after the verb).
Adjunct (A): Optional info about circumstances (answers "how", "when", "where", "why").
Clause Variations:

Declarative: Typical statement order (Subject follows Predicator).

Interrogative: Question form (often places part of Predicator before Subject).

Imperative: Command (No subject, base verb form).

Minor Clause: A structure lacking a Predicator (e.g., "In your pocket!").

IV. NARRATIVE STYLISTICS

 Plot vs. Discourse: A distinction is made between the plot (the abstract, chronological
storyline) and the narrative discourse (the realized text, the manner in which the plot is narrated,
often using devices like flashback).

Six Units of Analysis: To organize narrative description, Simpson proposes a model with six
components [cite: 681-682]:

Textual Medium: The physical channel (e.g., novel, film, cartoon).

Sociolinguistic Code: The historical, cultural, and linguistic setting (dialects, accents,
registers used).
Characterisation 1 (Actions and Events): How narrative intermeshes with semantic processes
(doing, thinking, saying) attributed to characters/narrators (related to Transitivity).

Characterisation 2 (Point of View): Relationship between mode of narration (1st/3rd person)

and perspective (who sees vs. who tells).

Textual Structure: How narrative units are arranged (coherence, cohesion, large-scale plot
elements).

Intertextuality: Allusion to other texts and discourses.

V. STYLE AND POINT OF VIEW

Who Tells vs. Who Sees: A fundamental distinction. A third-person narrator (who tells) may
restrict the narrative to the perspective of a specific character (who sees). [cite_start]This
character is the reflector of fiction.

Narrative Modes:

Heterodiegetic: The narrator is external to the story (third person).

Homodiegetic: The narrator is internal to the story (first person).

Markers of Point of View:
Deixis: Words pointing to physical orientation (e.g., this, that, here, come, go).

Locative Expressions: Adjuncts describing spatial placement relative to the reflector (e.g., to
the left, just upstream).

Verba Sentiendi: Words denoting thoughts, feelings, and perceptions.

Modal Shading (Psychological Point of View): Simpson categorizes narrative based on the
"shading" of modality (attitude/certainty) [cite: 788-789]:

Positive Shading: Narrator’s desires, duties, and opinions are prominent (rich in deontic
modality and verba sentiendi).
 Negative Shading: Narrator is bewildered or uncertain, relying on external appearances (rich
in epistemic modality like "must have", "perhaps", "seemed").

Neutral Shading: Narrative is stripped of explicit modal comment; categorical assertions and
physical description dominate ("objective realism").

VI. STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF THE SICK ROSE

POEM: THE SICK ROSE BY WILLIAM BLAKE

> O Rose thou art sick. / The invisible worm / That flies in the night / In the howling storm: / Has
found out thy bed / Of crimson joy: / And his dark secret love / Does thy life destroy.
>

Analysis using Simpson's Levels of Language:

Graphology (Shape on page):

The poem consists of two short stanzas (quatrains) with short line lengths. This visual
compression contrasts with the weight of the semantic content, creating a sense of urgency or
density.

Phonology (Sound):

The rhyme scheme is ABCB (worm/storm, joy/destroy). The rhythm is roughly

anapestic/iambic, giving a driving, beating pulse. The ominous 'o' assonance in "Rose", "worm",
"storm", "joy", "love", "destroy" creates a dark, resonant tone.

Grammar (Syntax & Transitivity):

Clause Structure: The poem is essentially one complex sentence.

Vocative: It opens with a direct address (Vocative) "O Rose", personifying the flower.

Transitivity: The "Worm" is the Actor (the doer). It "flies" (Material process) and "has found
out" (Material process). The "Rose" (and its "life") is the Goal (the affected entity). This
grammatical structure reinforces the active, predatory nature of the worm and the passive
victimization of the rose.

Semantics/Metaphor:

The poem relies heavily on symbolism and metaphor.

Source Domains: Gardening/Nature (Rose, worm, bed, storm).

Target Domains: Human relationships/Sexuality/Corruption.

Metaphor: "Bed of crimson joy" maps the floral flowerbed onto a human sexual bed (crimson
suggesting passion/blood). The "worm" acts as a phallic symbol or an agent of corruption/disease
invading innocence. "Dark secret love" serves as an oxymoron, contrasting the usual positive
connotations of love with destruction.

Pragmatics/Discourse:

The speaker serves as an observer/prophet revealing a hidden truth ("found out") to the Rose.
The tone is ominous and perhaps admonitory.

3. RESEARCH ARTICLE

Stylistic Analysis of E.E, Cummings’ Poem “Listen”.

I. Introduction to Stylistics & The Poem

Goal of Stylistics: Unlike literary analysis, stylistics aims to be objective and rooted in fact. It
seeks to explain how the specific words create the feelings/responses readers experience.

Initial Interpretation of “(listen)”:

Theme: A celebration of the imminent arrival of Spring and the newness/joy it brings.

Addressee: It is an address to a lover (“my darling”) to share the poet’s happiness and accept
the inevitability of nature.

Core Message: Just like the arrival of Spring, the speaker’s love is inevitable and cannot be
stopped.

II. Lexical Analysis (Vocabulary)

Open Class Words: The poem relies heavily on open class words (nouns/verbs) rather than
grammatical “glue” words.

Semantic Fields (Nouns):

Nouns are split into two categories: Nature (dog, sunlight, flowers) and Humans (houses,
people, streets).
Abstract Nouns: “Dreams” and “Miracle” bridge these two categories, connecting the human
experience with the natural world.

Verbs (Creating Immediacy):

Tense: All finite verbs are in the present tense (e.g., “barks,” “arrives”), creating a sense of
immediacy.

Progressive Forms: Words like “tumbling” and “opening” indicate ongoing action.
 Directives: 12 verbs are used as directives (commands/invitations) such as “listen,” “look,”
“run,” “jump.” This reinforces the poem as a plea to the lover to join in.

Word Splitting:

The word “wonderful” is split across lines 8 and 9 (“wonder” / “ful”).

Effect: This forces the reader to read it first as the noun “wonder,” then as the adjective
“wonderful,” increasing density of meaning.

III. Deviation (Breaking Rules)

Cummings uses deviation to “foreground” (highlight) specific parts of the text.

1. Graphological Deviation (Visuals)

Lower Case: The poem mostly uses lower case. This is standard for Cummings, but it makes
any use of Capitals highly significant.

Example: “Spring” (line 19) is capitalized, marking it as a crucial concept.

Example: The final line (“but nobody will stop it”) is fully capitalized to emphasize that
nothing can stop nature/love—not even powerful figures like “policemen”.

Homological (Iconic) Effects: The text looks like the action it describes.

“tumbl / ing” (lines 7-8): The verb physically “tumbles” from one line to the next.

“o-p-e-n-i-n-g” (line 12): The hyphens visually stretch the word, mimicking the slow process
of a flower opening.

2. Grammatical & Punctuation Deviation

Unnecessary Brackets: Cummings brackets phrases to show two events happening

simultaneously.
Example: “are(leaves; flowers)dreams” suggests leaves are physically opening at the exact
moment the poet’s dreams are metaphorically opening.
Inversion: Subject-Verb-Object order is changed in line 12 to place emphasis on the action.

IV. Parallelism (Patterns)

Graphological Parallelism: The poem is visually organized into ordered stanzas (either five 6-
line stanzas or five 5-line stanzas).

Interpretation: This suggests order within the chaos, mirroring the cyclic structure of the
seasons.
 Phonological Parallelism: While there is no strict rhyme scheme, there is internal rhyme and
vowel repetition (e.g., “eyes people smiles”) in most stanzas.

V. The “Twist”: Congruence in the Final Stanza

The final stanza is the most important for interpretation because of “congruence” (many
foregrounding features happening at once).

Reverse Deviation:

Unlike the rest of the poem, the final stanza follows normal grammatical syntax.

It uses standard capitalization (actually extra capitalization).

Significance: The most “deviant” part of this specific poem is actually the part that looks
“normal”.

Effect on Meaning: The switch to clear, normal language makes the final message
unambiguous and easy to understand: You cannot fight the force of Spring or Love; you must
submit to it.

VI. Conclusion

Summary: The stylistic analysis confirms the initial intuition that the poem is dynamic and
active.

Key Findings:

Deviant punctuation is used to highlight dynamic verbs (movement).

The “normal” language at the end creates a moment of absolute clarity regarding the poem’s
theme.