PRELIMS MASTER PROGRAM 2025

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY-1

ORBITS AND ROCKETS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Some basics of Satellite Orbit .......................................................................................................... 2

2. Types of ORBITS – LEO, MEO, GEO etc. ............................................................................................ 3
1) Circular Orbits .......................................................................................................................................... 3
A) Low Earth Orbit (Circular Orbit) .....................................................................................................................................3
B) Medium Earth Orbit .......................................................................................................................................................5
C) Geosynchronous Orbit and Geostationary Orbit ...........................................................................................................5
2) Highly Elliptical Satellite Orbits ................................................................................................................. 6
3) Transfer Orbits ......................................................................................................................................... 7
A) Geostationary Transfer Orbit .........................................................................................................................................7
4) Some other basics (Class Discussion) ........................................................................................................ 7
3. SpacePorts of India ......................................................................................................................... 7
A) Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC)-SHAR ....................................................................................................................8
B) KulaSekarapattinam Space Port .....................................................................................................................................8
C) Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) ..................................................................................................9
4. Timeline of Space Program IN India – through the years ................................................................. 9
5. ISRO ROckets/Launchers ............................................................................................................... 11
1) PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) ...................................................................................................... 11
A) A SOLID FUEL ENGINGE VS LIQUID FUEL ENGINE (EXTRA GYAN)................................................................................ 12
B) PSLV C-60/ SPADEX MISSION (30th Dec 2024) ............................................................................................................. 12
C) Understanding SPADEX in more details ...................................................................................................................... 13
A) PSLV C-59/ Proba-3 Mission (Dec 2024) ..................................................................................................................... 14
D) PSLV C-58 (Jan 2024) ................................................................................................................................................... 15
E) PSLV C-57/ Aditya-L1 Mission (Sep 2023) – Just remember this fact ......................................................................... 15
2) GSLV-MK-II ............................................................................................................................................. 15
A) Recent Launches: ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
B) Future Launches:......................................................................................................................................................... 16
3) GSLV MK-III (LVM3) ................................................................................................................................ 16
A) Future Plans of LVM-3 (GSLV-MK-3) ........................................................................................................................... 18
B) India's Journey towards developing its own cryogenic engine ................................................................................... 18
4) Sounding ROckets .................................................................................................................................. 18

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 5) Other Advanced Developments in the field of rockets ............................................................................ 19
A) NExt Generation Launch Vehicles (NGLV) ................................................................................................................... 19
B) Semi Cryogenic Engine ................................................................................................................................................ 20
C) Differences between Cryogenic Engine and Semi-Cryogenic Engine .......................................................................... 20
6) Reusable Rockets: Revolutionizing Access to Outer Space ...................................................................... 21
7) Low-Cost Small Satellite Launcher (SSLV) ................................................................................................ 22
8) ISRO Tests Hybrid Propulsion System in Sep 2022................................................................................... 23
9) ISRO Plans for Nuclear Energy use in Space ............................................................................................ 23
6. Next Class – ISRO Satellites, ADITYA-L1, Chandrayaan-4; Gaganyaan, Space Station of India;
Initiatives by NASA, Space-X, China etc. ................................................................................................ 23

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1. SOME BASICS OF SATELLITE ORBIT

- An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around another one due to gravity.
▫ An object in an orbit is called a satellite. A satellite can be natural, like earth or the Moon. A
satellite can also be manmade, e.g. ISS around Earth, Chandrayaan-2 orbiter around Moon, GSAT-
11 around earth.
▫ Objects of similar mass orbit each other with neither object at the centre, whilst small objects
orbit around large objects. In our Solar system, earth revolves around sun, Moon revolves around
earth.

- Various Types of Orbits: Orbits can have different shapes. All orbits are elliptical, which means they
are an ellipse. A circular orbit is just an ellipse whose foci coincide.
▫ In Elliptical Orbit, the distance of the satellite keeps on changing from the body around which it
is revolving.
▫ The closest point a satellite comes to earth is called its perigee. The farthest point is known as
apogee.
▫ For satellites revolving around Sun, the point in orbit closest to sun is perihelion, and the point
furthest from sun is called aphelion.
▫ In general term the term used are Periapsis and Apoapsis.

- How do Objects stay in orbit?

▫ The gravitational force provides it the necessary acceleration to stay in orbit.
§ Without gravity, an Earth-orbiting satellite would go-off into space along a straight line. With
gravity it is pulled back towards Earth. A constant tug of war takes place between the
satellite’s tendency to move into a straight line, or momentum, and tug of gravity pulling the
satellite back.

- Need of balance between Object’s momentum (Speed) and force of gravity for Orbital motion:
▫ If the forward momentum of one object is too great (escape velocity on earth: 11.186km/s or
40,320 km/h), it will speed past and not enter the orbit.
▫ If the momentum is too small, the object will be pulled down and crash.

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 ▫ When these forces are balanced, the object is always falling towards the planet, but because of
it moving sideways fast enough, it never hits the planet.

- When does a satellite go into elliptical orbit and when does it go into circular orbit?
▫ Orbit not possible: V < sqrt (GM/R)
▫ Circular Orbit: V = sqrt (GM/R)
▫ Elliptical Orbit: V > sqrt (GM/R)

- Gravity and Speed of Satellite in an orbit

- Orbital Velocity – Circular vs Elliptical

§ For a circular orbit, it is always the same.
§ However, in the case of an elliptical one this is not the case as the speed changes dependent
upon the position in the orbit. It reaches the maximum when it is closest to the earth and it has
to combat the greatest gravitational pull, and it is at its lowest speed when it is furthest away.

2. TYPES OF ORBITS – LEO, MEO, GEO ETC.

1) CIRCULAR ORBITS

A) LOW EARTH ORBIT (CIRCULAR ORBIT)

- A low earth orbit is an orbit around earth with an altitude between 160 kilometers and 2000
Kilometers. Objects below approximately 160 Kilometers will experience very rapid orbit decay
and altitude loss.

- It is used for vast majority of satellites.

▫ All human space flights have taken place in LEO with the exception of manned Lunar flight
of the Apollo program.
▫ All manned space stations to date, as well as the majority of satellite have been in LEO.

- Main Characteristics
▫ Low orbital period
▫ Satellites closer to earth -> better visibility -> earth observation/remote sensing satellites.
▫ Easier placement of satellite in orbit
▫ Lower latency in communication -> less round-trip time.
▫ Satellites face lower radiations when compared to satellites at higher altitudes.
- Applications
▫ Earth Monitoring Satellites: As they are able to see the surface of the earth more clearly
▫ Communication satellites: Especially the satellite phones
▫ International Space Station is at a height of 400 km.

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SUN SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT (CIRCULAR OR ALMOST CIRCULAR) (POLAR ORBIT)
□ Satellites in Polar Orbit usually travel past Earth from north to south rather than from west
to east, passing roughly over Earth’s pole. They don’t have to pass the north pole or south
pole precisely. Even a deviation within 20 to 30 degrees is still classed as polar orbit.

□ Sun Synchronous Orbit is a kind of Polar Orbit. In this orbit, satellites are synchronized to
always be in the same fixed position relative to the Sun. This means that the satellite always
visits the same spot at the same local time. In this orbit, whenever and wherever the satellite
crosses the equator, the local solar time on the ground is always the same.

§ A sun synchronous combines altitude and inclination in such a way that an object on
that orbit will appear to orbit in the same position, from the perspective of the sun,
during its orbit around the earth. In other words, it orbits in such a way that it precesses
once a year. The surface illumination angle will nearly be same every time.

§ This is achieved by having the osculating orbital plane precess (rotate) approximately
one degree each day with respect to celestial sphere, eastward, to keep pace with
earth's movement around the sun.

§ Typical sun-synchronous orbits are about 600-800 Km in altitude, with periods in the 96-
100-minute range, and inclination of around 98 degrees.

§ Possible only around oblate planets like Earth, Mars etc. The extra mass around the
equator makes the precess possible. But Venus is too spherical to have a Sun
Synchronous Satellite orbit.

□ Significance of Sun-Synchronous Orbit

­ This orbit keeps the angle of sunlight on the surface of earth as consistent as possible -
> this consistency means that scientists can compare images from the same season over
several years without worrying about too much extreme changes in shadows and
lightening, which can create illusion of images.

□ Kinds of satellite put in Sun-Synchronous orbit

­ Sun-synchronous orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging,
spy and weather satellites.
­ E.g., Cartosat-2 series

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B) MEDIUM EARTH ORBIT
ú Height: 2000 km to 3,5786 kms
ú Satellite speed is lower (compared to LEO)
ú Orbital Period range from 2 to 24 hours
ú Most common use of satellite in this orbit is for navigation, communication, and geodetic/space
environment science.
ú Most common altitude is approximately 20,200 km, which yields an orbital period of 12 hours
as used for examples by GPS.
ú E.g:
§ GPS Satellites Fly in Medium earth orbit at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km.
§ Galileo (the satnav system of Europe) is also located in MEO

C) GEOSYNCHRONOUS ORBIT AND GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT

GEO-SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT
▫ It is a satellite orbit around the earth with an orbital period that matches Earth's rotation period on
its axis (i.e., orbital period is 23 hours 56 minutes
and 4 seconds), irrespective of inclination.
» A person on a point on Earth, will see a
satellite in this orbit in the same place in the
sky at the same time of the day, every day.
» Over the course of a day, the object's
position in the sky traces out a path, typically
in a figure-8 form, whose precise
characteristics depend on the orbit's
inclination and eccentricity.

▫ Requirements:
» Circular Orbit of Height 35786 km. At this height an orbital period of satellite is equal to earth’s
rotation period.
» Direction of revolution of satellite should be same as direction of rotation of earth.

GEO-STATIONARY - A SPECIAL CASE OF GEOSYNCHRONOUS

▫ A Geostationary Orbit is a particular type of Geosynchronous orbit, the distinction being that
while an object in Geosynchronous orbit returns to the same point in the sky at the same time
each day, an object in geostationary orbit never leaves that position.

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 ▫ Requirements for a satellite to be
geostationary?
- Geosynchronous requirements
- The equatorial plane of earth must be
coplanar with the orbital plane of the
satellite revolution (i.e., angle of
inclination of orbit to equator is 0 degrees)
- Image: [Link]
content/uploads/2023/07/05-
[Link]
ú Communication satellites and weather
satellites are often placed in Geostationary
orbits, so that satellite antenna which
communicate with them don't have to
rotate to track them but can be pointed permanently at the position in the sky where
they stay.

ú Advantages
- Geo systems have significantly greater available bandwidth that the Low Earth Orbit - LEO
and Medium Earth Orbit
- Covers 1/3rd of Earth's surface
- Less expenses on tracking activities
- Higher life span of satellites

ú Limitations
- Would require line of sight communication paths between terrestrial antenna and the
satellites.
- Long path length, and hence losses when compared to LEO, or MEO.
§ Long path length introduces delays.
§ Satellite costlier to install in GEO in view of the greater altitude
§ Geostationary Orbit (GEO) can only be above equator and therefore poles can't be
covered.

2) HIGHLY ELLIPTICAL SATELLITE ORBITS

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 - Elliptical Orbits are often called Highly Elliptical orbits or
HEO.
- Key Features

ú Follows the curve of an ellipse.

• Moves much faster when it is near earth and slower
when it is away from earth.
ú There are two focal points and one of the these is the
geo-centre of the earth.
ú How permanent coverage can be achieved?
By placing a number of satellites in the same orbit, but equally spaced apart, permanent coverage can be
achieved.

3) TRANSFER ORBITS

- These are special kind of orbits used to transfer satellites/spaceships from one orbit to another. These
orbits are elliptical, with its perigee closer to earth. Satellites are taken to Perigee with the help of a rocket.
After reaching this orbit, satellites by using relatively little energy from built in motors, can move to another
larger orbit.
- This allows a satellite to reach a very high orbit, without needing the rocket to go to that height.
Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) is the most common type of transfer orbit.

A) GEOSTATIONARY TRANSFER ORBIT

- It is a Hohmann transfer orbit used to reach, geosynchronous or
geostationary orbit. It is highly elliptical earth orbit with an apogee
of 42,164 km, or 35786 km above sea level. Perigee can be anywhere
above atmosphere, but it is generally restricted to few hundred Kms
above the earth's surface.
- Hohmann transfer orbit: It is an elliptical orbit used to transfer
between two circular orbits of different radii in the same plane.

4) SOME OTHER BASICS (CLASS DISCUSSION)

Why are all satellites launched from east coast?

Why are satellites launched from near the equator?

• Cape Canaveral/ Kennedy Space Center, Florida USA
• Kourou (French Guiana)

3. SPACEPORTS OF INDIA

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 A) SATISH DHAWAN SPACE CENTRE (SDSC)-SHAR
It is the ‘Spaceport of India’. It is the backbone of the ISRO in providing launch
base infrastructure for the Indian Space Program.

It is situated along the east coast of Andhra Pradesh and is located 80 km off
Chennai. It currently provides launch infrastructure to all ISRO missions. It is
equipped with a solid propellant processing setup, static testing, and launch
vehicle integration facility, telemetry services, - tracking and command
network to oversee the launch – and a mission control centre.

B) KULASEKARAPATTINAM SPACE PORT

In Feb 2024, PM Modi laid down the foundation stone for India’s second
spaceport at Kulasekharapattinam, a coastal village in TN’s Thoothukudi
district on 28th Feb 2024.

Why this location?

▫ It offers a strategic advantage, particularly in enhancing payload
Problem with launching small
capability with its direct southward launch trajectory for small
satellites from Sriharikota:
launch vehicles. Dogleg Maneuver takes extra
fuel and reduces the payload
On the day of laying of foundation stone only, ISRO launched Rohini
capacity. Polar satellites
Sounding Rocket “RH200” from the newly established launch complex.
launched from Sriharikota
▫ The RH200 rocket, developed by Vikram Sarabhai Space Center spaceport of south India
(VSSC), has a long-standing reputation for reliability, with this frequently use this maneuver
launch marking its 1928th successful mission. to avoid flying over Sri Lanka.
Rockets make a steep 40-
Launch site is expected to be fully commissioned within 24 months and degree arc in order to bypass
will enhance the space activities of NGEs (Non-Government Entities). the city of Colombo. For larger
- The new site will focus on launches of smaller payloads. satellites, fuel required for this
maneuver is insignificant
- The new facility will permit anywhere between 20 to 30 SSLV
compared to the total fuel.
launches annually. However, this is very inefficient
- Advantages: for smaller rockets.
▫ As the Penetration of private sector increases, more
launchpads (spaceports) will be needed to launch satellites.
▫ The Kulasekharapattinam space port will allow a direct
southward and smaller trajectory for the light weight SSLVs
carrying less fuel. It is because Kulasekharapattinam is
located several kms to the west of Colombo. It will enhance
the payload capacity.

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 C) THUMBA EQUATORIAL ROCKET LAUNCHING STATION (TERLS)

It’s an Indian rocket launching station operated by ISRO. It is located

in Thumba, Thiruvananthapuram.

It is India’s first rocket launching station and was established in 1963.

Use: It is used by ISRO for launching sounding rockets.

Why Thumba was chosen?

It was chosen because it is located very close to earth’s magnetic
equator. Thus, the orientation of geo-magnetic field is entirely
horizontal and north-south.

The region around the magnetic equator experiences strong

electrical currents called equatorial electrojets. These currents can
be effectively studied by launching rockets from Thumba.

Thumba also allows for easier access to upper atmosphere and

ionosphere, which are crucial for studying the interaction between
earth and space.

Simpler Atmospheric Circulation: At higher latitudes, the Earth’s

rotation and the Coriolis effect cause atmospheric circulation
patterns to become more complex. This creates large scale wind
systems like westerlies and easterlies, which can make it challenging
to isolate specific atmospheric phenomenon. Near the equator, the
Coriolis effect is weaker. This allows for a more simplified circulation
pattern, often dominated by rising warm air and converging cold
winds. This simpler structure makes it easier for scientists to
understand the fundamental processes during atmospheric
circulation and weather pattern.

Thumba is also located near Arabian Sea – this allows for safe
launches with minimal risk to populated areas.

4. TIMELINE OF SPACE PROGRAM IN INDIA – THROUGH THE YEARS

1) 1962: The Indian National Committee for Space Research is formed under the leadership of Vikram
Sarabhai and physicist Kalpathi Ramkrishna Ramanathan
2) 21 Nov 1963: India’s space program takes off with launch of a sounding rocket from Thumba Equatorial
Rocket Launching Station in Kerala. It was for probing upper atmosphere.
3) Aug 15, 1969: ISRO is formed
4) Aug 19, 1975: Aryabhata – India’s first satellite is launched from a Soviet Kosmos-3M rocket from
Kapustin Yar in the Soviet Union. It was designed and built in India

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5) 1979: Bhaskara-1, the first experimental remote sensing satellite built in India, is launched. Images
taken by its camera were used in hydrology, forestry and oceanography.
6) 1980: Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)-3, India’s first experimental satellite launch vehicle, takes off with
Rohini Satellite RS-D2. Camera had the ability to use data for classifying ground features like water,
vegetation, bare land, clouds and snow.
7) 1982: INSAT 1-A is launched. Abandoned in 1983 where its altitude control propellant was exhausted.
8) 1984: Rakesh Sharma, former IAF pilot, becomes the first Indian in space. In a joint India-Soviet Union
Mission, Sharma boards the Soyuz T-11 spacecraft to the Salyut 7 orbital station.
9) 2008: Launch of Chandrayaan-1. It orbits the Moon but doesn’t land. It performs high resolution remote
sensing aiming, among various missions, to prepare a 3D atlas of both the near and far sides of the
moon.
10) 2013: Launch of Mangalyaan, the Mars Orbiter Mission. Orbiting and studying Mars since Sep 24, 2014.
11) 2016: All 7 satellites of IRNSS system placed in Orbit
12) 2019: Chandrayaan-2 launched using GSLV MK-III
13) 2023: Chandrayaan-3 soft lands successfully on Moon.

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5. ISRO ROCKETS/LAUNCHERS

1) PSLV (POLAR SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE)

­ The PSLV is the third-generation satellite launch vehicle of India. It is an expandable

system and was the first Indian Launch Vehicle to be equipped with Liquid Stage.
▫ Note: ISRO has over the years realized 5 generations of rockets – SLV, ASLV,
PSLV, GSLV, and GSLV-MK-III.

­ Where is PSLV used?

▫ It was developed to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS)
satellite into Sun synchronous orbit, a service that was, until the advent of
the PSLV, commercially available only from Russia.
▫ PSLV can also launch small size satellites into Geostationary Transfer Orbit.

­ It is one of the world's most reliable launch vehicles.

­ Launches So Far
▫ Developed in early 1990s, its first launch in 1993 was a failure.
▫ First successful launch of PSLV took place in 1994 and till Dec 2024 (i.e., PSLV
C-60), PSLV has had 62 launches with only two failures.

­ Technical Specifications of PSLV

­ Capabilities
§ Payload to SSPO (sun synchronous polar orbit): 1,860 Kg
§ Payload to Sub GTO: 1,425 Kg

▫ Key features of PSLV Engines: PSLV has four stages using solid and liquid
propulsion alternatively.
▫ Expansion of capabilities: Strap on Motors

▫ PSLV uses 6 solid rocket strap-on motors to augment the thrust provided
by the first stage in its PSLV-G (1678 kg in SSPO) and PSLV-XL (1750 kg to

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 SSPO) variants. PSLV-DL, PSLV-QL versions use 2 and 4 straps on motors respectively.
PSLV-CA (1100 kg in LEO) uses no strap on motors.

» Key Significance and Achievements of PSLV

ú Reliability: Only 2 failures in more than 3 decades of service and 62 launches.
ú Commercial use: PSLV has launched more than 350 foreign satellites from 34 different
countries so far. For e.g. PSLV-C59 was a dedicated commercial mission used for launching ESA’s
Proba-3.
ú It has played significant role in various major ISRO missions (including Chandryaan-1, MOM,
IRNSS system etc.)
ú Strengthening India’s soft power: PSLV by providing the capability to launch satellites for
foreign countries enhances India’s soft power in the region.
ú Many learnings from the development of PSLV has helped scientists develop several non-space
applications like fire resistant tiles, better engines for missiles etc.

A) A SOLID FUEL ENGINGE VS LIQUID FUEL ENGINE (EXTRA GYAN)

» A solid rocket fuel has its fuel and oxidant mixed together as fine powders and then pressed into
solid cake.
- Key characteristics
ú Higher Thrust -> Higher force to launch the vehicle.
ú Less volume
ú One time burn -> all fuel burns at the same time, i.e., once it has been lit it will carry on
burning until it is used up.
ú Produces a lot of smoke -> large particles when fired

» A liquid fuel engine uses liquid fuel which can have following advantages
ú Controlling Thrust
ú Engine can be shut down and restarted
ú Higher energy density (joules per kg of propellant) is higher.
ú Higher Specific Impulse (impulse (in Newton second) per kg of propellent)
ú E.g., a modern solid fuel rocket has specific impulse of around 2500 N s Kg-1, while a good
liquid fuel rocket produces an impulse of about 4500 N s Kg-1.
ú Disadvantage: More complicated Engine requirements and thus more expensive and heavier
engine -> pumps, piping, separate storage for the fuel and oxidant means that extra mass has
to be carried by the launch vehicle.

» Why Hybrid Engines

ú Vastly reduce overall system weight and cost. It increases reliability (a smaller number of
components which can fail)

B) PSLV C-60/ SPADEX MISSION (30 TH DEC 2024)

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 - The core alone version of PSLV carried a pair of SPADEX satellites into eastward orbit.
- In addition to SpaDeX mission, the 4th stage of the rocket (known as the PSLV Orbital Experimental
Module-4) (POEM-4) hosted 24 small payloads. These include 14 payloads from ISRO and 10 from
academic institutions. They were deployed into various orbits over a 90-minute timeframe after
liftoff.

C) UNDERSTANDING SPADEX IN MORE DETAILS

- SpaDeX mission is a cost-effective technology demonstrator mission for demonstration of in-space
docking using two spacecraft launched by PSLV.
- In-Space Docking is important for India’s future space missions on Moon, for Bhartiya Antariksha
Station (BAS), etc.

- If the mission succeeds fully, India will become the 4th country in the world (after USA, Russia and
China) to have space docking technology.

- Objectives:
» Develop and demonstrate technology needed for rendezvous, docking, and undocking of two
small spacecraft (SDX01 (Chaser) and SDX02 (Target)) in a low earth circular orbit.

» Secondary Objectives include:

ú Demonstration of the transfer of electric power between the docked spacecraft, which is
essential for future applications such as in-space robotics.
ú composite spacecraft control (giving commands to both satellites as one)

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 ú payload operations after docking.

- More Details:
» The two spacecrafts are very small of about 220 kg each. They were launched by PSLV,
independently and simultaneously, into a 470 km orbit at 55-degree inclination.
» The two spacecrafts were provided with a small relative velocity. This incremental velocity
allowed Target spacecraft to build a 10-20 km inter-satellite separation with respect to
Chaser within a day.
» Eventually, the target and chaser will be in the same orbit with identical velocity but
separated by 20 km, known as Far Rendezvous.
» Now chaser will approach Target eventually reducing inter-satellite distances of 5 km, 1.5 km,
500 m, 225 m, 15 m, and 3 m -> ultimately leading to docking of the two spacecraft.

- New Technologies developed for enabling docking mission:

» Docking mechanism
» Suit of Rendezvous and docking sensors
» Power transfer technology
» Indigenous novel autonomous rendezvous and docking strategy
» Inter-satellite communication link (ISL) for autonomous communication between spacecraft,
incorporated with inbuilt intelligence to know the states of the other spacecrafts.
» Simulation test beds for both hardware and software design validation and testing.

ISRO POSTPONES SPADEX DOCKING AGAIN AFTER UNEXPECTED SATELLITE DRIFT

- The SpaDeX space docking experiment has so far missed two publicly announced schedules, on 7th
Jan 2025 and 9th Jan 2025.
- As of 10th Jan 2025, the Spacecraft are at a distance of 1.5 km and on hold mode.
- Further, drift to 500 m is planned to be achieved by 11th Jan 2025.
- Latest Update: 12th Jan 2025: In trial attempt at docking, SpaDex satellite successfully come 3 meters
to each other. After the trial attempt, spacecrafts have been moved back to safer distance and
docking experiment will begin after data analysis.

A) PSLV C-59/ PROBA-3 MISSION (DEC 2024)

- PSLV C-59/ PROBA-3 was a dedicated commercial mission of NewSpace India Limited (NSIL). It used
PSLV-XL version of the rocket. It was 61st flight of PSLV and 26th PSLV flight with PSLV-XL version.
- It successfully achieved its objectives, deploying ESA’s satellites into their designated orbit (a
highly elliptical orbit (59-degree inclination) with perigee of 600 km and apogee of 60,000 km) with
precision.
ú Proba-3 is ESA’s advanced Sun-observing mission.
ú It consists of 2 spacecrafts viz. the Coronagraph Spacecraft (CSC) and the Occulter Spacecraft
(OSC) and it was launched together in a stacked configuration.

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 ú After reaching orbit, these spacecrafts will start precise formation flying.
§ They will perform precise formation flying down to a single millimeter, as if they were
one single giant spacecraft.
§ To demonstrate their degree of control, they will produce artificial solar eclipses in orbit,
giving prolonged views of the Sun’s Corona.
§ The occulter spacecraft would line up in front of the other, around 150 meters away, to
cast its shadow precisely onto the other. The shade provided by the first spacecraft
(Occulter) would cover the fiery face of the Sun so that its faint surrounding ‘Coronal’
atmosphere becomes visible.

D) PSLV C-58 (JAN 2024)

- ISRO’s PSLV C-58 has launched XPOSAT Satellite into an eastward low inclination orbit on 1st Jan
2024.
- After injection of XPOSAT, the PS4 stage was restarted twice to reduce the orbit into 350 km
circular orbit for orbital platform (OP) experiments. The PSLV Orbital Experiment Module-3
(POEM-3) experiment was executed to meet the objective of 10 identified payloads, supplied by
ISRO and IN-SPACe.
» These 10 payloads are developed by start-ups, education institutions and ISRO Centres.
- Note: This is the third time ISRO has operated the PSLV fourth stage in this way.
- Thus, it can be said that the PSLV-C58 mission represents a union of the aspirations of
professional scientists, aspiring students of science, and India’s private spaceflight sector.

ISRO SUCCESSFULLY TESTS POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL ON PSLV’S-C58’S

ORBITAL PLATFORM POEM3 (JAN 2024)
- ISRO successfully tested a 100 W class Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell based power system
in its orbital platform, POEM-3 which was launched onboard PSLV-C58 on 1st Jan 2024.
- The objective of the experiment was to assess Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell operation in
space and to collect data to facilitate the design systems for future mission.
- Outcome of the test:
» During the short duration test onboard POEM, 180 W power was generated from Hydrogen
and Oxygen gases stored onboard in high pressure vessels. It provided a wealth of data on
performance of various static and dynamic systems.

E) PSLV C-57/ ADITYA-L1 MISSION (SEP 2023) – JUST REMEMBER THIS FACT

2) GSLV-MK-II

- Introduction:

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 » GSLV is the 4th generation launch vehicle of ISRO. It is an expandable launch system.
» Where is it used? -? It was primarily developed to launch INSAT class of communication satellite
into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). It is currently being used for launching GSAT series
» It was first launched in 2001, and its first successful flight was in 2003 when it successfully placed
GSAT-2 in 2003

- Nickname: Naughty Boy: It has been given this nickname because of its rather patchy track record. So
far (as of Dec 2025), GSLV has had 16 launches, but 25% of them (i.e. 4/16) have been failures.
» Reason for failures: The main problem is the Cryogenic engine that powers the third and final
stage – the Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS). This engine is a reverse engineered version of Russian
Technology. Due to MTCR restrictions Russia couldn’t provide India with the technology and India
had to reverse engineer the Russian technology which had some flaws.

- Technology and Capabilities:

» It is a three-stage engine (Solid, Liquid and Cryogenic) with first stage being solid, second liquid
and third being cryogenic engine.

» Payload to GTO: Presently GSLV can inject 2.5 ton (GSLV Mk-2) of communication satellite into
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit and it can inject 5 tonnes of satellite in LEO.

A) RECENT LAUNCHES:
o GSLV F14/ INSAT-3DS Mission: Accomplished in Feb 2024, it was the 16th mission of GSLV. It deployed
the INSAT-3DS meteorological satellite in GTO. It was a mission fully funded by ministry of earth
science.
INSAT-3DS: It is a follow-on mission of Third Generation Meteorological Satellite for Geostationary
Orbit. It is designed for enhanced meteorological observations and monitoring of land and ocean
surfaces for weather forecasting and disaster warning.
The satellite will augment the Meteorological services along with the presently operational INSAT-
3D and INSAT-3DR satellites.

o GSLV-F12/ NVS-01 Mission: Accomplished successfully in May 2023. This GSLV mission deployed
NVS-01 navigation satellite, weighing about 2232 kg, into GTO. The vehicle lifted off from the second
launch pad at SDSC-SHAR, Sriharikota and injected the satellite after about 19 minutes of flight

B) FUTURE LAUNCHES:
» GSLV-F15 mission will carry the NVS-02 navigation satellite to augment NavIC constellation.
» GSLV-F16 mission will launch a joint NASA-ISRO Satellite (NISAR) which will provide critical data on
agriculture, natural disasters and climate monitoring.

3) GSLV MK-III (LVM3)

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 ▫ LVM3 is a 3-stage heavy lift launch vehicle developed by ISRO.
1) Solid Rocket Boosters: S200 – GSLV MK III uses two S200 solid rockets boosters to provide the
huge amount of thrust required for lift off. Fuel: HTPB.
The S200 was developed at Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre.
The two strap-on motors of GSLV Mk III are located on either side of its core liquid booster.
2) A liquid Propellant core stage (L110): The L110 liquid stage is powered by 2 Vikas engines.
3) A Cryogenic Stage (C25): The C25 is an improvement on CE-20 Cryogenic engine, India's largest
cryogenic engine, designed and developed by the Liquid Propulsion System Center
a. Fuel: LOx + LH2

§ Capability: GSLV-Mk III can launch 4 tons class of satellites to Geosynchronous Transfer orbit (GTO) or
about 8-10 tons to LEO, which is twice the capability of GSLV Mk II.

▫ Flights so far:

§ First Experimental Flight in Dec 2014 (Dec 2014): LVM3/XCARE

§ First Developmental Flight- GSLV-Mk III-D1 (June 2017) – Carried GSAT-19 to GTO
§ 2nd Developmental Flight – GSLV – MK -III – D2 (Nov 2018) – Carried GSAT-29 to GTO
§ GSLV MK-III – M1/ Chandrayaan 2 Mission (July 2019)
§ GSLV MK-III – M2/ One Web India-1 Mission (Oct 2022)
- A total of 36 OneWeb Gen-1 satellites of about 150 Kg each totaling about 5,796 Kg were
launched to a circular LEO of about 601 km with a 87.4 degree inclination.
- OneWeb: OneWeb is a joint venture between India’s Bharti Enterprises and the U.K. government.

» LVM3 M3/ OneWeb India-2 Mission Accomplished Successfully (March 2023)

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 - In its sixth consecutive successfully flight of LVM3, the vehicle placed 36 satellites belonging to
the OneWeb Group company in their intended 450 km circular orbit with an inclination of 87.4
degrees.
- The total weight of the payload was 5,805 kg.
» LVM3 M4/ Chandrayaan 3.0 Mission was accomplished in July 2023

A) FUTURE PLANS OF LVM-3 (GSLV-MK-3)

- LVM3-M5 Mission – set for March 2025 – will deploy BlueBird Block-2 Satellites – under a contract
with the US-based AST SpaceMobile that plans to provide space based cellular broadband network
services on smartphones.

B) INDIA'S JOURNEY TOWARDS DEVELOPING ITS OWN CRYOGENIC ENGINE

▫ Basics about Cryogenic Engine
▫ Cryogenic engine is a rocket engine that uses cryogenic fuel or oxidizer, i.e. its fuel or oxidizer
(or both) are gases liquified and stored at very low temperatures.
▫ Note: All Cryogenic engines are also, liquid propellent rocket engines or hybrid rocket engines.
▫ Fuel: Combination of Liquid hydrogen and Liquid Oxygen is the most commonly used propellant
in cryogenic engine. The fuel provides very high specific impulse.

▫ Difficulties in developing Cryogenic engine

▫ Technology is quite sophisticated
§ Burning a super cooled fuel at extremely high temperatures.
§ Developing material that can withstand high temperature and pressure during combustion.

§ Advantages
o More efficient and provides more thrust for every kg of propellant it burns.

§ Current status
• CE-7.5 being used in GSLV MK-II.
• CE-20 is being used in GSLV MK-III. It is indigenously developed for LVM-3.

4) SOUNDING ROCKETS

- Sounding rockets are one or two stage solid propellant rockets used for probing the upper
atmospheric regions and for space research.

- They also serve as easily affordable platforms to test or prove prototypes of new components or
subsystems intended for use in launch vehicles and satellites.
» With the establishment of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in 1963 at
Thumba, a location close to the magnetic equator, there was a quantum jump in the scope for
aeronomy and atmospheric sciences in India.

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 § The launch of the first sounding rocket from Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on
21 November 1963, marked the beginning of the Indian Space Programme. The rocket was
US Nike Apache.
» Operational Sounding Rockets
§ Currently 3 versions are offered as operational sounding rockets, which cover a payload
range of 8-100 Kg and an apogee range of 80-475 Km.
Vehicle RH-200 RH-300-Mk-II RH-560-MK-II

Payload (in kg) 10 60 100

Altitude (in km) 80 160 470

Purpose Meteorology Aeronomy Aeronomy

Launch Pad Thumba, Kerala SDSC-SHAR SDSC-SHAR

» Rohini (Rocket Family) is a series of sounding rockets developed by ISRO for meteorological and
atmospheric study.

ú ISRO’s RH-200 sounding rocket records 200th consecutive successful flight (Nov 2022)
§ The small rocket lifted off from the launched pad at the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching
Station (TERLS) at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC).

▫ Example of Experiment: Air Breathing Propulsion Experiment using RH-560 rocket fitted with a
supersonic combustion (Scramjet) engine on Aug 28 from Sriharikota. (Aug 2016)

5) OTHER ADVANCED DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF ROCKETS

A) NEXT GENERATION LAUNCH VEHICLES (NGLV)

- ISRO is developing a Next-Gen Launch Vehicle (NGLV), which will one day replace operational systems
like PSLV
- In NGLV, ISRO is understood to be looking at a cost efficient, three stage to orbit, reusable heavy lift
vehicle with a payload capability of ten tonnes to GTO.
- NGLV will feature semi-cryogenic propulsion (refined Kerosene as fuel with liquid oxygen as oxidizer) for
the booster stages which is cheaper and efficient.
- It will have a simple robust design which will allow bulk manufacturing, modularity in systems,
subsystems and stages and minimal turnaround time.
- Potential uses will be in the areas of launching communication satellites, deep space missions, future
human spaceflight, and cargo missions.

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B) SEMI CRYOGENIC ENGINE
▫ Details

­ Semi-Cryogenic Engine is an Indian Liquid fuel rocket engine using a combination of liquid oxygen
(LOX) and refined kerosene (Isrosene) as propellants. It is being developed for future heavy lift
launch vehicles and reusable launch vehicles.
­ It is being developed by Liquid Propulsion System Centre, a subsidiary of ISRO.
▫ Project Codename: SCE-200

­ Where will it be used?

▫ Immediate Application: One of the immediate applications will be to replace the liquid core
(L110) engine of GSLV Mark-3 with the SCE-200 to boost the payload capacity of the rocket from
4 to six tonnes.

▫ Further plans
• Power further heavy lift rockets
• In reusable launch vehicles
• In human spaceflight missions
§ Other plans for the future
• A proposal to develop a bigger semi-cryogenic engine with a cluster of four or five engines
that could generate a lift of eight to 10 tonnes.

§ SCE-200: Other Details

• Cost of project: 1800 crore (Cabinet cleared the project in 2008).
• Currently, only US and Russia have this technology
• In 2015, ISRO signed an MoU with Russian Space Agency to boost its plan for Semi-Cryogenic
Launch Vehicle

C) DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CRYOGENIC ENGINE AND SEMI-CRYOGENIC ENGINE

Cryogenic Semi-Cryogenic
Fuel Liquid Hydrogen + Liquid Oxygen Isrosene + Liquid Oxygen
Temperature Liquid hydrogen required to be stored at -253- Kerosene can be stored at normal
degree celsius temperatures
Weight LH2 + LO2 is heavier than Kerosene and has to Lighter than liquid fuel and can be
be stored at freezing temperature of -253 stored at normal temperature.
degree celsius. Therefore, kerosene occupies less
space, and more propellant can be
packed in the semi-cryogenic
engine's fuel compartment.
Specific Impulse Cryogenic engine offers higher specific impulse
then SCE

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 Thrust to weight It offers better thrust to weight
Ratio ratio upto 180.
Higher density of the exhaust gas
in case of the SCE contribute to
high mass flow rates making it
easier to develop high thrust
engines.
Stage Higher specific impulse is valuable for upper • SCE have been preferred in
stage, where mass comes at a premium price. So lower stages when high thrust
Cryogenic is used at upper stage. is must-have over specific
impulse.

6) REUSABLE ROCKETS: REVOLUTIONIZING ACCESS TO OUTER SPACE

­ Details
▫ Reusable launch system is a launch system that includes the recovery of some or all of the
component stages and reuse of these components in another launch.
▫ Till now, several fully reusable sub-orbital system and partially reusable orbital systems have
been flown. During 21st century, the interest in reusable launch system has grown considerably,
with several active launchers.
» SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket has a reusable first stage and expendable second stage. Plans for
the second stage of the Falcon 9 to be made reusable, creating a fully reusable system,
have been cancelled, with the SpaceX starship being planned as a fully reusable launch
vehicle.
In Oct 2024, SpaceX’s Starship rocket has
completed a world first after part of it
was captured on its return to launch pad.
It brings SpaceX closer to developing a
fully reusable and rapidly deployable
rocket a big step closer.
The chances of the bottom part of the
rocket, known as Super Heavy Booster,
being caught so cleanly seemed slim

Note: NASA has paid SpaceX $2.8 billion

to develop Starship into a lander capable
of returning astronauts to the Moon’s
surface by 2026.

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 ▫ If ISRO is able to develop this technology, it will reduce the cost of launch by 70-80% and
increase the competitiveness of ISRO in satellite launch market.

­ Steps taken by ISRO to develop RLV

▫ In May 2016, ISRO successfully test fired its first indigenous winged reusable satellite launch
vehicle.
» In this experimental mission, the HS9 solid rocket booster carrying RLV-TD lifted off form
the First Launch Pad at Satish Dhawan Centre, Sriharikota.
» The RLV-TD re-entered the earth after reaching a height of 70 km.
» It was a baby step towards developing reusable launch vehicle.
» Critical technologies validated
» Autonomous navigation
» Guidance and control
» Reusable thermal protection system
» Re-entry mission management
» Ultimate Aim: Ultimate aim of the project is to put satellite into orbit around earth and
then reenter the atmosphere.
▫ The final version would take another 10-15 years to get ready.

7) LOW-COST SMALL SATELLITE LAUNCHER (SSLV)

The Indian SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle) is a small launch vehicle which will serve small satellite
launches. It is the smallest vehicle at 110-ton mass at ISRO.

Key Features:

▫ Capability: Payload capacity of 500 Kg to 500 km planar orbit or 300 kg to SSPO. Using PSLV
for these small satellites was an overkill.
▫ It uses three solid fuel-based stages and a liquid fuel-based velocity trimming module (VTM)
to place the satellite in orbit.
▫ Major technologies developed as part of SSLV are flexible nozzle control with electro-
mechanical actuators for all stages, miniaturized avionics, and a velocity trimming module in
the upper stage for precise satellite injections.

Need: The global demand for launch of small satellite is increasing. It is being demanded by businesses,
government agencies, universities, and various research labs.

Advantages:

▫ Low turnaround time: It is ideal for on-demand, quick turn-around launch of small satellites.
It will take only 72 hours to assemble (unlike around 70 days needed for PSLV).
▫ Low Human Resource requirement: Only 6 people will be required to do assembly (unlike 60
people for the PSLV).
▫ Cost Effective: The overall cost of building the SSLV will only be Rs 30 crores.

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 ▫ More business opportunities.

▫ First Developmental Flight in Aug 2022 – Partially successful – the three solid fuel propulsion system
functioned normally; But the satellite couldn’t be put in orbit properly and was lost. This was due to
malfunctioning sensor which resulted into placing of satellite in an elliptical orbit rather than circular
one.
▫ 2nd Developmental Flight: SSLV-D2/ EOS-07 Mission (Feb 2023)
» It placed EOS-07 of ISRO; Janus-1 (10.2 kg) of USA; and AaadiSAT-2 of SpaceKidz India into orbit.

▫ 3rd Developmental Flight: SSLV-D3/ EOS-08 Mission (Aug 2024)

» It was the third developmental flight of SSLV.
» It injected EOS-08 satellite and SR-08 DEMOSAT passenger satellite into 475 km circular orbit.
» The flight has also completed the SSLV Developmental Project and enables operational missions
by Indian Industry and NSIL.

8) ISRO TESTS HYBRID PROPULSION SYSTEM IN SEP 2022

▫ This hybrid propulsion system uses solid fuel (HTPB) and liquid oxidizer (LOX). The test was conducted
for 15 seconds on a 300 – mm sounding rocket motor.
o Advantages: It is more efficient, ‘greener’ and safer to handle and paves the way for new propulsion
technologies for future mission. Hybrid technology would allow restarting and throttling capabilities
on the motor. The use of liquids facilitates throttling and control over the flow rate of LOX.
o The test paves the way for hybrid propulsion-based sounding rockets and an exciting platform for
vertical landing experiments for spent-stage recovery.
▫ The test was conducted by Vikram Sarabhai Space Center at ISRO Propulsion Complex, Mahendragiri.

9) ISRO PLANS FOR NUCLEAR ENERGY USE IN SPACE

o In Jan 2021, the UR Rao Satellite Centre (URSC) of ISRO invited proposals for the three-phase development
of a 100-watt Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG).

o RTG uses heat produced during radioactive decay into electricity. The large difference in temperature
between this hot fuel and the cold environment of space is applied across special solid-state metallic
conjunctions called thermocouples, which generates an electric current using no moving part.

6. NEXT CLASS – ISRO SATELLITES, ADITYA-L1, CHANDRAYAAN-4; GAGANYAAN, SPACE STATION

OF INDIA; INITIATIVES BY NASA, SPACE-X, CHINA ETC.

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