Applied Hydrology

(CENG 6031)
Chapter 1
Introduction to Hydrology & the
Hydrologic cycle

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Chapter Contents
1. Introduction to hydrology & Hydrologic cycle
1.1 Hydrologic cycle
1.2 Physical process & Water balance concept
1.3 Role of Hydrologic Data in Engineering Design

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Basic concept
• Hydrology is the scientific study of the Earth’s water, focusing on:
 Where water is located (surface water, groundwater, atmosphere)
 How water moves (runoff, infiltration, evapotranspiration,
percolation, flow in rivers and aquifers)
 How water interacts with the environment (soil, vegetation, land
use, climate)
 How water is measured, modeled, and managed

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

 Hydrology is broad and includes several branches:
1) Surface Hydrology – Studies water on or near the Earth's surface, such as rivers, and lakes,
including processes like rainfall-runoff and flood hydrology.
2) Groundwater Hydrology (Hydrogeology) – Focuses on the movement and presence of
groundwater, including aquifers and underground water systems
3) Hydrometeorology – interaction of hydrological and atmospheric processes
4) Hydroinformatics – computational modeling of hydrological systems
5) Ecohydrology– Studies the interactions between living organisms and the hydrological cycle.
6) Isotope hydrology - Uses isotopes to determine the origin and age of water.
7) Highway Hydrology - primary interests are frequency analysis for analyzing rainfall and ungaged
data; empirical methods for peak discharge estimation; and hydrograph analysis and synthesis
8) Wetland hydrology - is the study of the movement of water in and out of the wetland ecosystem
9) Urban Hydrology - is a science, part of land hydrology, investigating the hydrological cycle, water
regime, and quality in urbanized territory

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Why Hydrology Matters?
 Hydrology—the science of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth—is
essential for understanding and managing water in engineered systems.
 Its importance spans environmental sustainability, infrastructure planning, disaster risk
reduction, and socio-economic development.
Hydrology matters because it:
• Ensures reliable water supplies
• Protects against floods and droughts
• Supports engineering design
• Preserves ecosystems
• Helps societies adapt to climate change
• Enhances food security
• Supports public health
• Drives sustainable development
Fig. 1.1: Relevance of hydrology
12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.
1.1 Hydrologic cycle
• The hydrologic cycle (also called the water cycle) is the natural,
continuous circulation of water through processes such as evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and
groundwater flow.
• The cycle has no beginning or end, and its many processes occur
continuously. Fig. 1.2: The hydrologic cycle

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Water resources in Ethiopia
• Ethiopia is divided into 12 basins; 8 of which are river basins, 1 lake basin,
and the remaining 3 are dry basins, with no or insignificant flow out of the
drainage system (Table 1.1).
• The River basins of the country have various properties in terms of yearly
average discharge rate to their exits with different flow directions,
terminals, and also water sources.
• The country has the potential to develop 3.8 million ha of irrigation and
45,000MW hydropower production
• The major water basins of the country have a large capacity for annual
irrigation.
• Irrigation potential of major rivers and Rift Valley Lakes is estimated to
reach around 3,800,733 hectares of land.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Table 1.1: Major basins in Ethiopia with water resources, irrigation, and
hydropower potential
Basins Type Area (km2) Water resources HP Potential Irrigation
(106 m3) (GWH/year) Potential (ha)
Abbay River basin 199,912 54.4 78,800 8,15,581
Awash River basin 110,000 4.9 4,500 1,98,632
Ayisha Dry basin 2223 0.0 18,900 -
Baro-Akobo River basin 75,912 23.23 - 10,19,523
Denakil Dry basin 64,380 0.86 - 1,58,776
Genale_Dawa River basin 172,259 6.0 9,300 10,74,720
Mereb River basin 77,120 0.72 - 5000
Ogaden Dry basin 79,000 0.0 - -
Omo-Gibe River basin 52,000 16.6 35,000 67,928
Rift valley lakes Lake basin 5,900 5.64 800 1,39,300
Tekeze River basin 82,350 8.2 6,000 83,368
Wabi Shebele River basin 202,220 3.4 5,400 2,37,905

12/10/2025
Total 123.95
By Dr. Kokeb Z.
158,700 38,00,733
Figure 1.3. Major river basins in Ethiopia

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Major lakes in Ethiopia and their potential
 Ethiopia has 11 major lakes, which are distributed in different parts of
the country, especially in the central, south, and southwest areas.
 Covered a total area of about 7,300 km² and storage potential of about
84.79 BCM.
• Although the depths of some lakes are not known yet, it is difficult to
estimate the total volume of water obtained from these lakes.
• The lakes are located in different states of the country, and they have
different elevations, drainage areas, surface areas, depths, as well as
storage volumes (Table 1.2).

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Table 1.2: Major lakes in Ethiopia
Lake Elevation (m) Drainage area Surface area Maximum Volume(BCM)
(km2) (km2) depth (m)
Tana 1788 15,319 3,156 14 28.4
Ziway 1636 7,380 440 9 1.0
Langano 1585 2,000 230 46 3.8
Abijata 1580 10,740 180 14 1.0
Shala 1550 2,300 370 266 37
Awasa 1680 1,300 129 22. 1.0
Abaya 1169 16,340 1,140 24.5 9.82
Chamo 1110 18,575 317 14.2 3.24
Hayki 1990 83 23 81.41 1.01
Asenge 2440 129 140 25.5 0.25
Beseka 1990 420 48.5 7.0 0.28
Total 74,586 61,73.5 - 1,379.74

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

1.2 Physical processes & Water Budget
• A water budget is an accounting of all water moving into, out of, and
stored within a specific area, often expressed by the following equation
Input – Output= Change in storage
• It is a crucial tool for understanding and managing water resources, as it
helps assess the availability of water for human use, guide agricultural
irrigation, and inform water management decisions by showing trends over
time.
• For a given open system(such as a catchment or basin), the continuity
equation for water in its various phases can be written as
P - Q - G - E -T = ∆S
• Where: P = Precipitation, Q = Stream flow, G = Groundwater discharge,
E= Evaporation, T= Transpiration, and ∆S = Change in storage

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

• For example, for an open water body such as Lake or reservoir (Figure
1.3), the input of the system consists of inflow (Qi), the precipitation
(P) on to the water surface and any sub surface inflow (Gi), and the
outputs such as evaporation from the water surface (E), outflow (Qo),
and the sub surface outflow (Go).
• Then, the water budget equation is
P + Qi –Qo–E + Gi-Go= ΔS

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Figure 1.3: The water balance of (a) lake (reservoir), and (b) a
catchment

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Example 1.1. A certain lake has a surface area of 708,000m2. For the month of
March, this lake had an inflow of 1.5m3/s and outflow of 1.25m3/s. A storage
change of 708,000m3 was recorded. If the total depth of rainfall recorded at the
local rain gauge station was 225mm for the month, estimate the evaporation
loss from the lake. Rainfall recorded at the gauge (225 mm) is representative of
rainfall over the whole lake (uniform). State any assumption that you make in
your calculation.
Solution:
Assumptions
• Rainfall recorded at the gauge (225 mm) is representative of rainfall over the
whole lake (uniform).
• No other gains/losses (no groundwater inflow/outflow, no seepage, no piped
transfers, no direct watershed runoff into the lake besides the measured
inflow).
• Inflow and outflow rates (1.50 and 1.25 m³/s) are constant over the month.
• March has 31 days (so the month length is 31 × 24 × 3600 s).
• Evaporation occurs only from the lake surface.
12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.
• Water-balance equation (volume form)
P + I − O − E =ΔS
• Solve for evaporation volume, E:
E= P + I − O − ΔS
• The individual components can be computed as follows:
-Precipitation, P= 225 mm x 7808,000m2/1000mm/m= 159,300 m3
-Inflow rate, I= 1.5m3/s ⇒ monthly inflow, I= 1.50×(31×24×3600)= 4,017,600 m3
-Outflow rate, O= -1.25 m3/s ⇒ monthly outflow, O= 1.25×(31×24×3600)= 3,348,000 m3
-Storage change, ΔS= -708,000m3.
• Then, the evaporation, E, can be computed by using the following equation:
E= P + I –O-ΔS
E= 159,300 m3+ 4,017,600 m3 -3,348,000 m3 -708,000m3
= 120,900m3.
• Convert to depth (evaporation depth over lake surface):
𝑬 120,900
= = 0.17076 m= 171 mm (depth over the lake surface).
𝑨 708,000
12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.
Sensitivity of estimated lake evaporation to groundwater flux
• By considering Example 1, below is a sensitivity table showing how the
estimated evaporation for March changes if we allow a constant
groundwater flux, GW during the month.
• Sign convention: positive GW = groundwater leaving the lake (loss), and
negative GW = groundwater entering the lake (gain).
Re-used numbers and assumptions:
• Lake area, A=708,000 m2
• Rainfall depth, P=225 mm=0.225 m→ PV=A×P=159,300 m3
• Inflow rate, Ir=1.50 m3/ → monthly inflow, I=4,017,600 m3 (March = 31 days)
• Outflow rate Or=1.25 m3/s → monthly outflow O=3,348,000 m3
• Observed storage change, ΔS=708,000 m3

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

• Water balance (including GW):
PV + I − O − EV − ΔS − GW =0
so
EV= PV + I − O − ΔS − GW
Where EV​ is evaporation volume (m³) and GW is groundwater flux (m³, positive =
loss).
• The Sensitivity table using 5 scenarios
Scenario Groundwater flux (GW) (m³ / month) Evaporation volume (EV) (m³) Evaporation depth (E) (mm)
A -200,000 (GW inflow of 200x103) 320,900 453.25 mm
B -100,000 (GW inflow of 100x103) 220,900 312.01 mm
C (base) 0 (no GW exchange) 120,900 170.76 mm
D +100,000 (GW loss of 100x103) 20,900 29.52 mm
E +200,000 (GW loss of 200x103) -79,100 -111.72 mm

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Notes on the table
• Evaporation depth = E= EV/A converted to mm.
• A negative evaporation depth (Scenario E) is physically impossible. It
indicates the assumed groundwater loss (200,000 m³) is larger than what the
mass balance allows, i.e., other inputs + inflow would not support that large
groundwater loss given the observed storage increase.
• In practice, a negative EV​ signals inconsistency in measurements or
assumptions or that the chosen GW is not realistic.
Useful derived number (threshold)
• Solving for GW that makes EV=0:
Gcrit=PV+I−O−ΔS=120,900 m3
So if groundwater loss from the lake is about 120,900 m³ in March, the water
balance predicts no net evaporation (i.e., evaporation would be zero).
Groundwater loss larger than this produces an impossible negative
evaporation in the balance, signaling measurement or assumption problems.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Interpretation & recommendations
• Under our original assumptions (i.e., no groundwater exchange) in
Example 1, the evaporation estimate is ≈ 171 mm (120,900 m³) — the
base case (Scenario C).
• If the lake receives groundwater inflow, the required evaporation to
satisfy the observed storage change goes up (Scenarios A to B).
• If the lake loses groundwater, the required evaporation goes down, and
for sufficiently large groundwater loss the balance becomes
inconsistent (i.e., Scenario E).
• Practical next steps: check for (or measure/estimate) groundwater
seepage, measurement errors in inflow/outflow rates, or errors in the
reported storage change. Even modest groundwater fluxes (≈100,000
m³/month) strongly affect the estimated evaporation.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Considering sensitivity to uncertainty in inflow/outflow rates (±10%)
• The sensitivity analysis for evaporation when the inflow and outflow rates
each vary by ±10% (March = 31 days, same base data in example 1).
Restate the assumptions:
• Rainfall over the lake = 225 mm (uniform).
• No groundwater exchange (GW = 0) in these scenarios.
• Inflow and outflow rates are constant through March (i.e., for 31 days).
• Water-balance used: PV + I−O−EV=ΔS → EV=PV + I−O−ΔS.
• Lake area A=708,000 m2.
• PV​=159,300 m3. Base monthly volumes (31 days):
• Inflow Ibase=1.50 m3/s×31 d=4,017,600 m3
• Outflow Obase=1.25 m3/s×31 d=3,348,000 m3
• Observed storage change ΔS=708,000 m3.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Table 1.3: Sensitivity Result (Considering inflow ±10%, outflow ±10%)
Evaporation volume (EV) Evaporation depth (E)
Inflow change Outflow change Inflow (I) (m³) Outflow (O) (m³)
(m³) (mm)

-10% -10% 3,615,840 3,013,200 53,940 76.19

-10% 0% 3,615,840 3,348,000 -280,860 -396.69

-10% +10% 3,615,840 3,682,800 -615,660 -869.58

0% -10% 4,017,600 3,013,200 455,700 643.64

0% 0% 4,017,600 3,348,000 120,900 170.76 ← base case

0% +10% 4,017,600 3,682,800 -213,900 -302.12

+10% -10% 4,419,360 3,013,200 857,460 1,211.10

+10% 0% 4,419,360 3,348,000 522,660 738.22

+10% +10% 4,419,360 3,682,800 187,860 265.34

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Interpretation of results
• Base case (i.e., no flow changes): Evaporation ≈ 120,900 m³ → 170.8 mm
(same as we calculated earlier).
• Evaporation is highly sensitive to modest (±10%) changes in flows. For
example:
• If inflow increases 10% while outflow decreases 10% (both changes favoring
storage), estimated evaporation jumps to ≈ 1,211 mm (very large).
• If inflow decreases 10% while outflow increases 10% (both changes reduce inputs),
the balance gives negative evaporation (–869.6 mm), which is physically impossible
— this indicates inconsistent measurements or that some assumed zero-fluxes (e.g.,
groundwater) are in fact present.
• Negative EV​ values mean the assumed combination of inputs/outputs and
observed storage change cannot be satisfied without additional
(unaccounted) inputs — typically they point to measurement error or to
omitted terms (groundwater inflow, measurement timing mismatch, short-
term storage errors, etc.).
12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.
 Considering the combined uncertainty analysis with ±10% uncertainty on
inflow, outflow, and on the observed storage change (ΔS).
Assumptions
• Rainfall over the lake is fixed at PV=159,300 m3 (225 mm over 708,000 m²).
• Inflow base, Ibase=4,017,600 m3 (1.50 m³/s × 31 days).
• Outflow base, Obase= 3,348,000 m3 (1.25 m³/s × 31 days).
• Storage-change base, ΔSbase=708,000 m3
Uncertainty by changing ±10%
• Uncertainties: Ibase∈[0.9Ibase, 1.1Ibase], Obase ∈[0.9Obase, 1.1Obase],
ΔS∈[0.9ΔSbase, 1.1ΔSbase].
• Water-balance (volume): EV=PV+I−O−ΔS.
• Lake area, A=708,000 m2.
• Evaporation depth, E (mm) = EV/A×1000.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Key computed values (bounds)
• Inflow range: 3,615,840 → 4,419,360 m³
• Outflow range: 3,013,200 → 3,682,800 m³
• ΔS range: 637,200 → 778,800 m³
Using the extreme combinations that maximize / minimize evaporation, the evaporation
volume and depth bounds are:
• Maximum evaporation (most evaporative combination)
• Evmax =928,260 m3
• Emax=1,311.10 mm
• Base-case evaporation (when there is no uncertainty applied)
• EVbase=120,900 m3
• Ebase=170.76 mm
• Minimum evaporation (least evaporative combination)
• EVmin=−686,460 m3
• Emin=−969.58 mm

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Interpretation (what these numbers mean)
• The range −686,460 to +928,260 m³ (≈ −970 mm to +1,311 mm) is the
physically allowed range given the ±10% bounds on I, O and ΔS and the simple
balance formula.
• Negative evaporation (here the lower bound) is physically impossible,
because a negative EV​ means the assumed inputs/outputs and the observed
storage change are inconsistent unless there is an unaccounted input (e.g.,
groundwater inflow) or measurement error.
• So the presence of large negative values signals that with plausible
measurement errors the current measured quantities could imply additional
sources/sinks not included in the balance.
• The base estimate (no uncertainty) remains 120,900 m³ ≈ 170.8 mm (this is
the single best estimate under our original assumptions).

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

Hydrological Process
• Hydrological processes describe the continuous circulation, movement, storage, and
transformation of water within the hydrosphere. These processes are governed by several
physical components that interact across atmospheric, surface, and subsurface systems.
Key components of the hydrological processes
1. Precipitation
 Precipitation is the primary input of water to the terrestrial hydrological system.
 Key physical controls are air temperature, humidity, wind patterns, topography, and storm
dynamics.
2. Interception
• Interception refers to the fraction of precipitation that is captured and temporarily stored
on vegetation canopies, building surfaces, or other structures before infiltrating or
evaporating.
3. Infiltration is the downward movement of water from the surface into the soil.
• Controlled by Soil texture and structure, Soil moisture content, Land cover and vegetation,
Surface roughness, and Rainfall intensity
• High infiltration reduces surface runoff and enhances subsurface recharge.
12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.
 Figure 1.4. Hydrological process
4. Surface Runoff (Overland Flow) is the portion of precipitation that
flows over the land surface toward streams or depressions.
• Generated by Hortonian flow (infiltration-excess), Saturation-
excess flow (soil saturation), and return flow
• Runoff is strongly influenced by slope, soil permeability, land use,
rainfall intensity, and antecedent moisture conditions.
5. Evaporation
• Evaporation is the process by which liquid water is converted into
vapor from open water surfaces, soil surfaces, and other moist
surfaces.
6. Transpiration
• Transpiration refers to water loss from vegetation through
stomatal openings as part of plant metabolic processes.
• Together, evaporation + transpiration = evapotranspiration (ET).
8. Percolation
• Percolation is the vertical movement of water beyond the root
zone toward deeper layers of the soil and vadose zone.
• It replenishes deeper groundwater reservoirs and is controlled by
soil profile properties and hydraulic conductivity.
9. Groundwater Recharge
• Groundwater recharge is the process by which infiltrated water
reaches the saturated zone. Recharge is essential for sustaining
base flow in streams and aquifers.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

1.3 Role of Hydrologic Data in Engineering Design
• Hydrologic data—such as rainfall, streamflow, evapotranspiration,
groundwater levels, soil moisture, and watershed characteristics—
form the scientific foundation for designing water-related
infrastructure.
• Engineering structures must safely and efficiently manage water
under both normal and extreme conditions, and this is only possible
when design decisions are based on reliable hydrologic information.
• The quality of hydrologic data directly influences the reliability, safety,
and cost-effectiveness of engineering systems.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

1. Planning, Design, and Operation of Water Infrastructure
A) Flood Control Structures
Hydrologic data enable the estimation of design floods, which are
required to size:
• dams and spillways
• levees and embankments
• flood diversion channels
• culverts and storm drains
• Flood magnitude–frequency relationships (e.g., return periods of 25,
50, or 100 years) cannot be established without long-term streamflow
and rainfall records.
12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.
B) Hydraulic Structures
Design flows for:
• bridges
• culverts
• stormwater systems
• river training works
come from hydrologic data that characterize peak discharge, baseflow,
flow duration curves, and seasonal variability.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

2. Water Supply System Design
A) Reservoir and Storage Planning
Hydrologic data determine:
• inflow availability
• drought frequency and severity
• required storage volumes
• reservoir operation rules
Long-term streamflow records are crucial for simulation of reservoir behavior
under variable hydrologic conditions.
B) Groundwater Development
Groundwater level and recharge data support:
• well-field design
• sustainable pumping rates
• aquifer protection from over-extraction
12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.
3. Irrigation and Agricultural Water Management
Hydrologic information helps determine:
• crop water requirements (ET₀ and ETc)
• irrigation scheduling
• canal and distribution network capacity
• drainage design for preventing waterlogging and salinity
 Reliable rainfall and evapotranspiration data are vital to avoid both
under- and over-design.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

4. Urban Drainage and Stormwater Management
Urban hydrologic data guide:
• sizing of storm sewers
• design of detention/retention basins
• estimation of runoff coefficients
• modeling of impervious surfaces and rainfall–runoff response
• IDF (Intensity–Duration–Frequency) curves derived from rainfall data are among the
most essential tools in urban hydrology.
5. Environmental and Ecological Engineering
Hydrologic data support:
• environmental flow determination
• wetland restoration
• watershed rehabilitation
• pollution load modeling
• sediment yield estimation
Streamflow variability and water quality data help maintain ecological integrity.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.

6. Risk Analysis, Safety, and Climate Resilience
A) Reliability and Safety Assessment
Hydrologic variability and extremes shape the safety factors and margins used in
design. Without accurate data:
• spillways might be undersized
• flood defenses may fail
• reservoirs may not meet long-term supply needs
B) Climate Change Considerations
Hydrologic data combined with climate projections allow:
• non-stationary flood estimation
• future drought risk assessment
• climate-resilient infrastructure planning
 The shift from historical stationarity to dynamic hydrologic analysis requires more
advanced datasets and modeling.

12/10/2025 By Dr. Kokeb Z.