Research and Scientific Method

• The two terms, research and scientific method, are

closely related
• Research, as we have already stated, can be termed as
“an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances,
whether these circumstances are experimentally
controlled or recorded just as they occur
• On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research
methods and techniques, although they may vary considerably
from one science to another, is usually given the name of
scientific method
• Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the
branches (of science) and that method is the method of all logically trained
minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its
material; the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their
mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the Scientific
Method and is a man of science.”
• In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and
accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear.
• Further, logic develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when
these are compared with observable phenomena, it becomes possible for
the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is most in harmony
with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and
survey investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific
method
• Experimentation is done to test hypotheses
and to discover new relationships
• But the conclusions drawn on the basis of
experimental data are generally criticized for
either faulty assumptions, poorly designed
experiments, badly executed experiments or
faulty interpretations.
• As such the researcher must pay all possible
attention while developing the experimental
design and must state only probable
inferences.
• The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates
which can be stated as under
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but
making only adequate and correct statements about population
objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical
scrutiny are for use in testing the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed
as scientific theories.
Research process
 (1) formulating the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalizations and interpretation, and
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal
write-up of conclusions reached
 formulating the research problem;

extensive literature survey;

developing the hypothesis;

preparing the research design;

determining sample design

collecting the data;

execution of the project;

analysis of data;

hypothesis testing;

generalizations and interpretation, and

preparation of the report

 [Link] THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Parameters Descriptive research problem Causal research problem Relational research problem
The aim is to investigate the
To identify the extent and
The aim is to depict what already qualities or the characteristics
Aim/purpose nature of cause and effect
exists in a group of the population. that are connected in some
relationships.
way or the other.
Directionality of
Non-directional Directional Directional
hypothesis
Can manipulate independent
Variable manipulation No manipulations in terms of
and dependent variables to No manipulation
and control variables and hypotheses.
find the effect.
Mail, online or offline surveys and Field experiment, laboratory Focus groups, surveys, case
Data collection method
interviews. experiments. studies.
Research approach Structured Highly structured Structured
What are the views of primary
teachers on how writing should be Do experienced teachers
taught in a classroom? How do provide more help with
teachers teach writing in the corrections during writing
What is the impact of
classroom? Both these questions than inexperienced teachers?
advertising campaigns on the
relate to the current state of affairs. In this example, there is a
voting outcome? In this
Example To answer the first question there is a need to establish a
example, there is a need to
need to talk to teachers, ask their relationship between
test the effect of campaigns
views and then describe their views. teachers’ teaching experience
on the numbers of voters.
While in the second question there is and how much help they can
a need to observe and then describe. provide with corrections while
Thus both are descriptive research writing.
 ways of understanding the problem
• with one’s own colleagues
• researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an experienced
man a
• The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to
get himself acquainted with the selected problem.
He may review two types of literature—
• the conceptual literature- concerning the concepts and theories
• the empirical literature -consisting of studies made earlier which are similar
to the one proposed
• statement of the objective is of basic importance because it determines the
data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are
relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be
used in these explorations and the form of the final report
 2. EXTENSIVE LITERATURE SURVEY

• Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should

be written down
• It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a
Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to
the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval
• For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to
go to.
• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of
the problem
 [Link] OF WORKING HYPOTHESES

• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical consequences.
Characteristics of research hypotheses
• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested.
• The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area
of research and to keep him on the right track.
• It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of
the problem.
• It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data
analysis to be used
• It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem
where we do not need working hypotheses, specially in the case of exploratory
or formulative researches which do not aim at testing the hypothesis.
 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS
• CONCEPTUAL HYPOTHESIS
• RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
• STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS
 CONCEPTUAL HYPOTHESIS
• In conceptual hypothesis first we hypothesize
about the CONCEPT or THEORETICAL
CONSTRUCT
• It state the expected relationship among
concepts
• Eg: outgoing people are happier than people
who keep to themselves
 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
• To test the conceptual hypothesis we need to
OPERATIONALISE the concept thereby
creating next level of hypothesis called the
research hypothesis
 STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS
• When we do statistics, we are not testing the
research hypothesis directly rather we are
testing statistical hypothesis
• A statistical hypothesis states the expected
relationship between or among summary
values of population
• There are two kinds oh hypothesis
➢ Null hypothesis
➢ Alternative hypothesis
 Null hypothesis
• Null hypothesis states that there is NO
RELATIONSHIP between the variable under
observation
• Symbolized as H0
• Such hypothesis is accepted when statistical
results are not significant
• Eg: eating ice cream has no relation with
running a temperature
 Alternate hypothesis
• Alternate hypothesis states that there IS A
relation between variables under observation
• Denoted by Ha
• it also sometimes states the direction of
relationship, positive or negative
• Eg: eating ice cream has relation with running
a temperature
• NULL HYPOTHESIS ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
Statistical significance EXISTS
• No STATISTICAL difference between variables
between variables
Researcher tries to
• Researcher tries to APPROVE it
DISPROVE it
Relationship is NOT due to
• Relationship is due to chance
CHANCE
Example: Type I and Type II errors
• A Type I error happens when you get false positive results: you conclude
that the drug intervention improved symptoms when it actually didn’t.
These improvements could have arisen from other random factors or
measurement errors.

• A Type II error happens when you get false negative results: you conclude
that the drug intervention didn’t improve symptoms when it actually did.
Your study may have missed key indicators of improvements or attributed
any improvements to other factors instead.
 [Link] design
• the conceptual structure within which research would
be conducted
• In other words, the function of research design is to
provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
• Research purposes may be grouped into four
categories, viz.,
• (i) Exploration,
• (ii) Description,
• (iii) Diagnosis
• (iv) Experimentation
• Example: effect of drug on different age group
- cross sectional design and experimental
design
• 2. the rise in online teaching in the past year
correlates with any change in test scores. -
correlation
• The preparation of the research design, appropriate for
a particular research problem, involves usually the
consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of
obtaining information will be organized and the
reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance
available for the purpose
 5. Determining sample design
• ‘universe’ or ‘population’ = All the items under
consideration in any field of inquiry
• The sample =is the specific group of
individuals that you will collect data from.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in
the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry
• Even the slightest element of bias in such an
inquiry will get larger and larger as the
number of observations increases.
• The researcher must decide the way of
selecting a sample or what is popularly known
as the sample design
 Simple
random
Types of sampling
Systematic

Probability
sampling Stratified

Cluster /
area
Types of Multi-stage
sampling sampling
Deliberate
sampling
Non probability
sampling quota

refferal
 Probability sampling
• h probability samples each element has a
known probability of being included in the
sample
• Confident that sample is representation of
population
 Simple random samplimg
• each and every item in the population has an
equal chance of inclusion in the sample
• Method of selection
1. Lottery
2. random number tables
random assignment = participants have been
independently assigned to groups
 Systematic sampling
• An element of randomness is usually
introduced into this kind of sampling by using
random numbers to pick up the unit with
which to start.
• In such a design the selection process starts
by picking some random point in the list and
then every nth element is selected until the
desired number is secured.
 Stratified sampling
• If the population from which a sample is to be
drawn does not constitute a homogeneous
group, then stratified sampling technique is
applied so as to obtain a representative
sample
• In this technique, the population is stratified
into a number of non overlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are
selected from each stratum
• Example:
• Gathering opinion about government support
for social workers.
• We think that social workers with different
years of experience would have different
opinion about this issue
• Stratify sample by length of experience
 Cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling involves grouping the
population and then selecting the groups or
the clusters rather than individual elements
for inclusion in the sample.
• The sample size must often be larger than the
simple random sample to ensure the same
level of accuracy because is cluster sampling
procedural potential for order bias and other
sources of error is usually accentuated
 Area sampling
• Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling
and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big
one.
• Under area sampling we first divide the total area
into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas,
generally called geographical clusters, then a
number of these smaller areas are randomly
selected, and all units in these small areas are
included in the sample
 Multi-stage sampling
• This is a further development of the idea of
cluster sampling. This technique is meant for big
inquiries extending to a considerably large
geographical area like an entire country.
• Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be
to select large primary sampling units such as
states, then districts, then towns and finally
certain families within towns. If the technique of
random-sampling is applied at all stages, the
sampling procedure is described as multi-stage
random sampling.
 Non probability sampling
• We cannot say everyone in the population has
the equal chance of being selected.
• Sample may or may not be representative of
the population which affect the external
validity
 Deliberate sampling
• Deliberate sampling is also known as
purposive
• When population elements are selected for
inclusion in the sample based on the ease of
access, it can be called convenience sampling.
• judgement sampling
the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting
items which he considers as representative of
the population
 Quota sampling
• Goal is to select participants with particular
characteristics until you have enough.
 Referral sampling
• Used when population is difficult to locate
• Other name: snowball procedure
 6. COLLECTING THE DATA:

Data
collection

Primary Secondary
data data
• 1. Primary Data
• When an investigator collects data himself with a
definite plan or design in his/her way, then the
data is known as primary data.
• Generally, the results derived from the primary
data are accurate as the researcher gathers the
information. But, one of the disadvantages of
primary data collection is the expenses
associated with it. Primary data research is very
time-consuming and expensive.
 Primary data collection
• Primary data can be collected either through
experiment or through survey
• If the researcher conducts an experiment, he
observes some quantitative measurements,
or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his
hypothesis
• 2. Secondary Data
• Data that the investigator does not initially collect
but instead obtains from published or
unpublished sources are secondary data.
• Secondary data is collected by an individual or an
institution for some purpose and are used by
someone else in another context. It is worth
noting that although secondary data is cheaper to
obtain, it raises concerns about accuracy. As the
data is second-hand, one cannot fully rely on the
information to be authentic.
• in the case of a survey, data can be collected
by any one or more of the following ways:
• By observation
• Through personal interview
• Through telephone interview
• By mailing of questionnaires:
• Through schedules
 [Link] observation
• This method implies the collection of
information by way of investigator’s own
observation, without interviewing the
respondents
• The information obtained relates to what is
currently happening and is not complicated by
either the past behavior or future intentions or
attitudes of respondents
• This method is no doubt an expensive method
and the information provided by this method is
also very limite
 b. Through personal interview:
• The investigator follows a rigid procedure and
seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived
questions through personal interviews.
• This method of collecting data is usually
carried out in a structured way
• output depends on ability of the interviewer
to a large extent.
 c. Through telephone interviews:
• This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone
itself.
• This is not a very widely used method but it
plays an important role in industrial surveys in
developed regions, particularly, when the
survey has to be accomplished in a very
limited time
 d. By mailing of questionnaires:
The researcher and the respondents do come in contact
with each other if this method of survey is adopted.
• Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a
request to return after completing the same.
• It is the most extensively used method in various
economic and business surveys. Before applying this
method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the
questionnaire is conduced which reveals the
weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
• Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very
carefully so that it may prove to be effective in
collecting the relevant information.
 e. Through schedules:
• Under this method the enumerators are appointed
and given training.
• They are provided with schedules containing relevant
questions. These enumerators go to respondents with
these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the
schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given
by respondents.
• Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so
far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field
checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure
sincere work.
 Secondary Data Collection Methods
• Secondary data is data collected by someone other than the actual user. It
means that the information is already available, and someone analyses it.
The secondary data includes magazines, newspapers, books, journals, etc.
It may be either published data or unpublished data.
• Published data are available in various resources including
• Government publications
• Public records
• Historical and statistical documents
• Business documents
• Technical and trade journals
• Unpublished data includes
• Diaries
• Letters
• Unpublished biographies, etc
• The researcher should select one of these
methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration
• the nature of investigation,
• objective and scope of the inquiry,
• financial resources,
• available time and the desired degree of
accuracy.
 7. EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT:
• The researcher should see that the project is
executed in a systematic manner and in time.
• If the survey is to be conducted by means of
structured questionnaires, data can be readily
machine-processed. In such a situation,
questions as well as the possible answers may
be coded
• If the data are to be collected through
interviewers, arrangements should be made
for proper selection and training of the
interviewers
• If some of the respondents do not cooperate,
some suitable methods should be designed to
tackle this problem
 8. ANALYSIS OF DATA:
• The analysis of data requires a number of closely
related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to
raw data through coding, tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences.
• Coding operation is usually done at this stage
through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated
and counted
• Editing is the procedure that improves the
quality of the data for coding
• Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure
wherein the classified data are put in the form
of tables
• Analysis work after tabulation is generally based
on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well
defined statistical formulae
• In the process of analysis, relationships or
differences supporting or conflicting with original
or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests
of significance to determine with what validity
data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
• Through the use of statistical tests we can
establish whether such a difference is a real
one or is the result of random fluctuations
• If the difference happens to be real, the
inference will be that the two samples come
from different universes and if the difference
is due to chance, the conclusion would be that
the two samples belong to the same universe
 9. Hypothesis-testing:
• Do the facts support the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary?
• Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-
test, have been developed by statisticians for
the purpose
• The hypotheses may be tested through the
use of one or more of such tests, depending
upon the nature and object of research
inquiry
• Hypothesis-testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting
• If the researcher had no hypotheses to start
with, generalisations established on the basis
of data may be stated as hypotheses to be
tested by subsequent researches in times to
come
 10. GENERALISATIONS AND INTERPRETATION

• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several

times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory
• As a matter of fact, the real value of research
lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalisations
• The process of interpretation may quite often
trigger off new questions which in turn may
lead to further researches.
 11. Preparation of the report or the
thesis
• the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him.
• The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) the preliminary pages
(ii) the main text, and
(iii) the end matter
• In its preliminary pages the report should
carry
• title and date
• acknowledgements and foreword.
• table of contents
• list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if
any, given in the report.
• The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of
the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a
statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical
language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in
logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should
again put do
• At the end of the report,
• appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books,
journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also
be given in the end.
• Index should also be given specially in a
published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and
objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and
the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should
be used only if they present the information more
clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned
and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be
stated.
 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts
be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to
permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement,
keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural
design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance
and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and
reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research
and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,
has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity
1. Good research is systematic: research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of
rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative
thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.

2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of
great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from
a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some
premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical
reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to
one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that
provides a basis for external validity to research results.

4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be

verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for
decision