UNIT CODE: LEFN 4200

UNIT NAME: Comparative Education and International Studies

NAME: Wangari Evan Muiruri
REG NO: ES/03/KP/4675/2022
LECTURER: Dr. Ruth

Date of Submission: June 18, 2025

Task:
Compare and contrast the systems of education in Kenya and that of Britain/England.
a) Give brief background of the two countries.
b) Discuss on curriculum, administration, financing, systems of education- pre-primary, primary,
secondary, technical and vocational education, higher education, teacher education, language and
education.

1.0 Background

Education in Kenya refers to the institutionalized education system in Kenya, whereby pupils
and students are taught in specific locations (and buildings), following a particular curriculum
 (Riechi, 2020). The institutionalized system differs from traditional (or customary) education
which had been in existence long before missionarisation and colonization, and was administered
according to the various indigenous groups’ cultures and customs. Institutionalized education in
Kenya dates back to as early as the 18th century among the Swahili people, whereby the earliest
school was established, by missionaries in Rabai. During colonial rule, schools for the colonial
settlers and administrators were established, as well as schools serving various religious and
cultural communities. Kenya has been through three education curriculums since independence
in 1963, with the latest being, the Competency-based Curriculum, which was rolled in 2017 to
replace the 8-4-4 Curriculum that has been in practice since 1985.
Even though efforts have been put in place to promote basic education, with literacy levels
increasing among the Kenyan population (poverty, teenage pregnancy, truancy, drug abuse),
among others, all affect the literacy levels of prospective pupils.
In 2017, the World Economic Forum rated Kenya’s education system as the strongest among
forty-three other mainland Africa counties. In the following year 2018, the World Bank also
ranked Kenya as the top African country for education outcomes. Moreover, education is
guaranteed by the Constitution of Kenya 2010, whose Article 53 stipulates that every child has
the immediate right to free and compulsory basic education.
Education in Britain has continued to evolve and expand. In 1902, a system of free public
schools was created and in 1944, the Second Education Act was published, which established a
unified, national education system. The 1960s saw a major expansion of the British education
with the creation of new universities and the growing demand for higher education. During this
period, major reforms were made to the structure and content of the education system, including
the introduction of science and modern technology education.
The British education system remains one of the most prestigious in the world and is highly
respected around the world.

2.0 The Philosophy of Education System in Kenya

The Kenyan philosophy of education aims to foster social cohesion, human growth, and
economic development by preparing students for national unity, promoting cultural respect, and
encouraging adaptability to change. It also emphasizes the role of education in national
development, social equality, and the elimination of divisions. The current reforms focus on a
competency-based curriculum designed to provide a holistic, quality, and inclusive education for
sustainable development.

2.1 Historical Context:

 Post-independence, Kenya adopted a philosophy of education that reflected its national

aspirations, moving away from colonial structures and ideologies.
 Early philosophies emphasized national unity, social equality, and the development of a skilled
workforce.
 Current reforms are focused on transitioning from an 8-4-4 system to a 2-6-3-3 system with a
competency-based curriculum.
Current Reforms:

 The Kenyan government is implementing a competency-based curriculum (CBC) with the goal
of providing a holistic, quality, and inclusive education.
 The CBC aims to develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and other essential skills that are
relevant to the 21st century.
 The reforms also involve strengthening governance and management structures within the
education sector.
In essence, the Kenyan philosophy of education is a dynamic and evolving concept that is shaped
by the country's historical context, national aspirations, and the need to prepare its citizens for a
rapidly changing world.

3.0 Philosophy of the Education System in Britain

The philosophy of the British education system, while not monolithic, generally emphasizes a
balance between developing knowledge, skills, and personal growth, with a strong emphasis on
individual needs and societal contribution. It aims to provide a broad and balanced curriculum,
fostering critical thinking and a lifelong love of learning, while also preparing students for
further education and the world of work. Recent discussions also highlight the importance of
mental wellbeing and social responsibility.

Key Influences:

 Philosophical Traditions: The system draws on various philosophical ideas, including those
related to humanism, progressivism, and social justice.
 Educational Research: Educational research informs curriculum development and teaching
practices.
 Social and Economic Context: The system adapts to the changing needs of society and the
economy.
Recent Developments:

 Focus on Skills:
There's a growing emphasis on developing skills like critical thinking, problem-solving, and
digital literacy.
 Wellbeing and Mental Health:
There's increasing attention to student mental health and wellbeing, with initiatives to support
students' emotional and social development.
 Inclusivity and Diversity:
Efforts are being made to create a more inclusive and diverse education system that meets the
needs of all learners.

4.0 Education Curricula in Kenya

a) The 7-4-2-3 Education System

With the collapse of the East African community in 1977, Kenya continued with the same
system of the education but changed the examination names from their regional identity. The
East African Certificate of Primary Education (EACPE) became the Certificate of Primary
Education (CPE), awarded after 7 years of primary school which was the first time CPE was
marked by a computer system. The East African Certificate of Education (EACE) became the
Kenya Certificate of Education (KCE), awarded after 4 years of secondary school. The East
African Advanced Certificate of Education (EAACE) became the Kenya Advanced Certificate of
Education (KACE), awarded after 2 years of high school. The 7-4-2-3 system foresaw 11-13
years of basic education schooling and a minimum of 3 years for undergraduate university
education.

b) The 8-4-4 Education System

In 1985, President Daniel Arap Moi introduced the 8-4-4 system of education, which adopted 8
years of primary education, 4 years of secondary education and 4 years of university education.
With the introduction of the 8-4-4 system CPE became KCPE (Kenya Certificate of Primary
Education) while KCE became the Kenya Certificate of Secondary education (KCSE). The
length of basic education schooling was reduced to 12 years and the length of undergraduate
studies was increased to a minimum of 4 years.
From 1985 to 2017, public education in Kenya was based on an 8-4-4 system, with eight years of
primary education followed by four years of secondary school and four years of college or
university. To date, there has been steady growth in the advancement of education in the country
which boasts of a great number of public and private universities as well as TVET institutions
and middle-level colleges.

c) Competency Based Curriculum (CBC), 2-6-3-3-3

In 2017, the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) was launched to replace the traditional 8-4-4
system introduced in 1985. The Competency-Based Curriculum was designed by the KICD with
the aim of churning out ‘engaged, empowered and ethical citizens’. Unlike the 8-4-4 system, the
CBC Curriculum runs on a 2-6-3-3-3 system of education where basic education has been
organized in three levels; Early years Education, Middle School Education and Senior School
Education. Under CBC, learners will now spend 2 years in Pre-primary, 6 years in Primary
school (Grades 1-6), 3 years in Junior School (Grades 7, 8, 9), 3 years in Senior School (Grades
10, 11, 12), retaining 12 years of basic education schooling, and 3 years in university. The
Competency-Based Curriculum puts emphasis on seven core competences namely;
communication and collaboration, critical thinking and problem-solving, creativity and
imagination, citizenship, digital literacy, learning to learn and self-efficacy. According to KICD,
the traditional curriculum is teacher-centered while the CBC is learner-centered. Learners are
constantly assessed on the seven competencies based on the following areas; Meeting
Expectations (ME), Approaching Expectations (AE) and Below Expectations (BE). The first
cohort of learners under the CBC curriculum completed their Primary Education in 2022 and
transitioned to Junior School in 2023. The government has through the Ministry of Education
been investing in developing the infrastructure required in public schools across the country to
accommodate the Junior School pupils.
According to the Kenya Institute of curriculum Development (KICD), students transitioning to
Junior Schools will be between the ages of 12 and 14.

4.0 British Curriculum

An increasing number of private schools offer a system of education similar to the British system
of education with eight to nine years of preparatory/primary school, followed by two to three
years of secondary school (culminating in the International General Certificate of Secondary
Education, IGCSE), and thereafter two years of high school leading to the Advanced Level
qualification. This has similarities with 7-4-2-3 system described above. The British Curriculum
is divided into Key stages, each corresponding to a specific age range:
1. Early Years Foundation Stage (Ages 3-5): Focuses on development through play and
engagement with seven key areas of learning, including communication, literacy, and
mathematics.
2. Key Stage 1 (Ages 5-7): Develops core literacy and numeracy skills.
3. Key stage 2(Ages 7-11): Continues the development of core skills and introduces new
subjects.
4. Key Stage 3 (Ages 11-14): Builds on foundational knowledge and prepares students for
GCSEs.
5. Key Stage 4 (Ages 14-16): Focuses on GCSEs (General Certificate of Secondary
Education), which are qualifications in various subjects.
6. Key Stage 5 (Ages 16-19): Students take A-Levels (Advanced Levels), higher-level
qualifications in a range of subjects, or pursue vocational qualifications like BTEC Diplomas.

4.1 Comparison between Kenyan and Great Britain Curricula

Key Differences:

Learning Approach:
The British curriculum emphasizes a more structured, skills-based approach, while the CBC aims
for a more experiential and competency-based approach.
Focus:
The British Curriculum focuses on knowledge application and holistic development, while the
CBC focuses on knowledge acquisition and exam success.
Assessment:
The British Curriculum uses a wider range of assessment methods, including standardized tests,
while the CBC focuses on formative and summative assessments.
Global Recognition:
The British Curriculum is highly recognized worldwide, while the CBC is gaining recognition
but is not yet as widely recognized (M’mboga Akala, 2021).
In Kenya the 8-4-4 system is used whereas in the UK the 6-3-3-1-3 is the curriculum
(BBC,2012).
In Kenya we take our o-levels to join the university but in the UK you have to take A-levels to
attend university.
The secondary schools in UK are mostly mixed but in Kenya there are mostly separate.

In summary, the British system is known for its emphasis on skills and holistic development,
while the Kenyan system is evolving towards a more competency-based approach, although it
still places a strong emphasis on exam success.

4.2 Similarities of the UK and Kenyan Education Systems

 Both countries have state funded schools and privately owned.

 In both countries it is a law to attend primary school.
 One must go through the four main parts of education.
 Both primary and secondary students wear uniforms to school.

5.0 Administration of the Kenyan education system

The Kenyan education system’s administration involves both national and county-level
oversight, with the Ministry of Education at the national level primarily responsible for policy,
curriculum and examinations. The county government handle pre-primary education, village
polytechnics and other vocational training. This structure ensures a balance between national
standards and local needs within the education sector.

5.1 National Level Education

Ministry of Education
The Ministry of Education formulates and implements education policies, standards and
curricula, and manages universities, tertiary institutions and other research and higher learning
institutions. Overall policy and regulations.
State departments
The Ministry of Education is further divided into state departments, including those for basic
education, vocational and technical training and higher education and research.
National Education Board
This board is responsible for advising the CS on education matters, ensuring all children attend
school and facilitating transitions to higher levels of education.

5.2 County Level Administration

Pre-primary education: county government manages pre-primary education, including village

polytechnics.
Vocational training: they also oversee vocational training institutions like village polytechnics.
Local implementations: it plays a role in implementing national education policies at the local
level.
Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD): Designs the curriculum.
Teachers Service Commission (TSC): Employs and manages teachers.
NEMIS (National Education Management Information System): It is used to collect and
manage data related to students, schools and other educational aspects.
Kenya Education Management Institute (KEMI): It focuses on building capacity for
educational leadership and management.
Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC): Administers national exams and assessment.

5.3 Key Aspects of Education Administration in Kenya:

 Centralized Governance: The Ministry of Education at the national level sets policies
and standards for education across the country.
 County Government Involvement: While the national government focuses on policy
and higher education, county governments are responsible for pre-primary education,
village polytechnics, and other local educational initiatives.
 State Departments: The MOE has state departments focused on basic education,
vocational and technical training, and higher education and research.
 Curriculum Development: The Ministry develops and updates curricula for all levels of
education.
 Examination Management: The Ministry manages national examinations and
certification processes.
 Quality Assurance: The MOE ensures the quality of education through various
mechanisms.
 School Administration: School principals and other administrators are responsible for
the day-to-day management of schools, including planning, directing, and controlling.
  Resources Allocation: Educational administration involves acquiring and allocating
resources to achieve educational goals.
 Public-Private Partnerships: The government encourages public-private partnerships in
education, including school management and infrastructure development.

5.4 Key Functions of Educational Administration:

 Planning: Developing strategic plans, setting goals, and identifying resources.

 Directing: Guiding and motivating teachers and staff to achieve educational objectives.
 Controlling: Monitoring and evaluating performance, ensuring accountability, and
making adjustments as needed.
 Staffing: Hiring, training, and managing educational personnel.
 Resource Management: Managing financial, physical, and human resources effectively.
 Community Relations: Building relationships with parents, community members, and
other stakeholders.
 Policy Implementation: Ensuring that educational policies and regulations are
followed.
 Quality Assurance: Implementing measures to ensure the quality of teaching and
learning.
 Student Support: Providing support services to students, such as counseling and
tutoring.

6.0 Administration in British education system

It is a complex network involving central government, local authorities, schools and governing
bodies. The central government sets the overall framework and policy, while local authorities
manage and fund schools within their areas. School administration is largely handled by head
teachers and governing bodies, with a focus on instructional leadership and broader school
management.
1) Central Government
 The Department for Education (DfE) is the main government body responsible for
education policy, funding and legislation.
 They set the curriculum, standards and regulations for schools.
 The Department of Education also provides funding to local authorities and directly to
some schools.
2) Local Authorities
 Local authorities (such as councils) are responsible for managing and funding schools
within their area.
 They often have a strategic role in ensuring the provision of education, including school
placements and special education needs.
  Local authorities also have a role in monitoring school performance and ensuring
compliance with regulations.
3) Schools:
Head teachers:
Play a key role in leading the school, overseeing staff and managing the school’s finances,
admissions and resources.

Governing Bodies:
Are responsible for the overall management of the school, including setting the school’s vision
and direction, monitoring performance and ensuring accountability.

School staff:
Teachers, support staff and other professionals work together to deliver education and support
student learning.
4) Key Stages:
 The British education system is structured into key stages, which corresponds to different
age groups and stages of education.
 These key stages are: Key Stage 1(5-7 years), key stage 2(7-11 years), kay stage 3(11-14
years) and key stage 4(14-16 years).
5) Further and Higher Education:
 After secondary school, students can pursue further education, such as A-levels or
vocational qualifications.
 Higher education includes university and college degrees.

6.1 Comparison Between the administration aspect in Kenyan Education System and that
of Britain

Comparison between the administration aspect of the Kenyan education system and that of
Britain (England), focusing on how education is managed, governed, and structured at different
levels:

Comparison of Education Administration: Kenya vs Britain

Aspect Kenya Britain (England)

- Centralized with devolved - Decentralized, with significant
Governance Structure units due to the Constitution autonomy to local authorities and
(2010) schools
- Ministry of Education (MoE) - Department for Education (DfE)
oversees policy, curriculum, and sets policy, but local authorities and
standards school trusts run schools
Levels of Administration - National (MoE, Teachers - National Department of education
Aspect Kenya Britain (England)
Service Commission) (DfE)
- County Education Boards
- Local Education Authorities
(oversee education at county
(LEAs) manage schools locally
level)
- School Boards of Management - School governing bodies or
(BOM) for individual schools academy trusts
- Policy formulation, regulation,
Role of - Policy and funding allocation; sets
curriculum development,
Ministry/Department national curriculum
teacher recruitment (via TSC)
- Head teachers/Principals lead;
- Principals/Head teachers lead
School Management some schools are academies with
daily school administration
more autonomy
- BOM involves parents,
- Governing bodies/trust boards
teachers, local community in
manage finances and policies
governance
- Managed centrally by the - Managed locally by schools or
Teacher Recruitment &
Teachers Service Commission local authorities; some via academy
Management
(TSC) trusts
- Mainly from government,
- Government funding via local
Funding allocated through MoE and
authorities or direct to academies
county governments
- Some community and donor - Some schools have additional
contributions funding through trusts or sponsors
- TSC oversees teacher - Ofsted inspects schools; DfE
Accountability
performance and discipline oversees education quality
- Schools report to MoE and - Schools accountable to governing
County Directors of Education bodies and local authorities
- Policies cascaded from MoE - Policies implemented by schools
Policy Implementation
to counties and schools with support from LEAs and DfE
- BOM includes parents and - Governing bodies often include
Community Involvement
community reps parents and community members
- Devolution aims to improve - Increasing autonomy for
Recent Trends
local management academies and free schools

Summary

Key Focus Kenya Britain (England)

Administration Mostly centralized with county-level Decentralized with strong school
Model decentralization autonomy
Central MoE and TSC make major Local authorities and school trusts have
Decision-Making
decisions significant say
Teacher Centralized via TSC Decentralized; schools often handle
Key Focus Kenya Britain (England)
Management recruitment
Funding Government → MoE → Counties → Government → Local Authorities /
Distribution Schools Academies → Schools
Quality Assurance TSC & MoE; school inspections Ofsted inspections, DfE oversight
Community Role Active via BOM Active via governing bodies

7.0 Structure of The Education System

Education quality has recently received a lot of attention in Kenya. The Kenyan government’s
primary document influencing this effort, the Kenya Education Sector Support Program for
2005-2010, established. In 2010, the NAC released the results of its first assessment.
In 2009, in collaboration with the NAC, Uwezo Kenya conducted an assessment of the basic
literacy and numeracy skills of children ages 6-16. The Annual Learning Assessment (ALA)
reached villages in 70 out of 158 districts in Kenya and assessed nearly 70,000 children in their
homes. The ALA was set at a Standard 2 level, which is the level where students are supposed to
achieve basic competency in reading English and Kiswahili and complete simple arithmetic
problems.

7.1 Early Childhood Development education

Early Childhood development (ECD) education or Pre-primary education is a foundation for

later learning and development and it targets children aged 0-5 years with a focus on igniting the
child’s potential for lifelong adaptability, innovation and communication skills while imparting
in them in the values of responsible citizenship and respect for diversity. ECD is classified into
three different clusters i.e.
 Baby-class
 Nursery school
 Pre-unit
Between the years of 2003-2007, the educational sector strategic plan and implementation plan
committed to eliminating poverty as an educational development hindrance, promoting human
rights through provisions of education and attaining sustainable development of quality basic
education for all. This implementation is a positive step towards education access in Kenya. One
of the first steps to access education is at the early childhood development (ECD), primary and
secondary levels. The government assessed the high need for a change in access due to half of
the population being composed of young people. ECD implementation is crucial in the school
systems because the ages of 0-5 and key developmental years. While the children are rapidly
developing, they are also the most vulnerable to environmental factors and influences. An
effective ECD programme could create a beneficial foundation for further education and
training.

7.2 Primary Education

Primary education marks the beginning of the 8-4-4 Curriculum. It begins at the age of 5 to 7
after completion of a year of kindergarten commonly known as nursery school or pre-unit. The
first class or year of primary school is known as Standard 1, the final year at both primary and
secondary levels, begins in January and ends in November. Students get 3 school vacations in
April, August and December. At the end of the school year, students advance to the next grade.
All public primary school pupils sit for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education examination
at the end of the school year in Standard eight. In primary school, students are taught English,
Kiswahili and indigenous language activities.
 Lower primary: This is a 4-year period that marks the first transition into the
mainstream primary education system and starts at ages 6 or 7.
 Upper primary: This is also a 4-year period that helps prepare the students for the high
school years. At standard 7, the students become more aware of which high schools they
want to attend. During the last year of the Primary school system, students are allowed to
select 4 to 6 secondary schools that they would like to attend including one national
school and take the KCPE, which validates their transition to high school. Universal
Primary Education (UME), an international development goal created by the World
Conference on Education, has led to Kenya’s target of universal primary education for all
citizens. Since 2003, enrollments have increased drastically and today Kenya has much
closer rates of enrollment to first world countries, such as the United States.

7.3 Secondary education

Secondary schools in Kenya fall into three categories: government-funded, Harambee and
private, Government-funded schools are divide into national, provincial and district levels.
Harambee schools do not receive full funding from the government and private schools are run
by private organizations or individuals. After taking the primary school leaving exam and
successfully passing, government-funded schools select students in order of scores.
Students with the highest scores gain admission into national schools while those with average
scores are selected into provincial and district schools. Harambee schools accept students with
low scores. Students who fail their examinations pursue technical and vocational education. The
latter is divided into technical secondary school (lasting 4 years) and apprenticeships solutions.
Since 2010, technical secondary schools’ student can have access to university programmes. A
number of students also drop out of school by choice due to poor scores.
Under the current system, students attend secondary school for four years before sitting for the
school-leaving exam at the end of the fourth year. The first-class or year of secondary schools is
known as form 1 and the final year is form 4. At the end of the fourth year, from October to
November students sit for the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education examination. In 2008,
the government introduced plans to offer free Secondary education to all Kenyans. Private
secondary schools in Kenya are generally high cost, offering students an alternative system of
education with better or more luxurious facilities compared to public schools. They are often
favored for prestige. Most private schools in Kenya offer the British system of education which
includes “O-levels” and “A-levels”.

7.4 KCSE Grading Requirements

Subject Grouping

The average grade is based on performance in seven subjects. Where a candidate sits for a
minimum seven and a maximum of nine subjects, the average grade is based on the seven
subjects. The grade assigned to the candidate depends on how well he has performed in all the
seven ranked subjects. The subjects are grouped and among those seven chosen group 1 is
compulsory, Group 2 must be at least 2, Group 3 must be at least 1, Groups 4 and 5 are optional.

Group

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5

Home Science;
History;
Art and Design;
Geography;
Agriculture;
Christian
Wood Work;
Religious
Biology; Metal Work ;
English; Education
Physics; Building
Subject Kiswahili; Chemistry;
(CRE) or
Construction;
French; German;
Mathematics Islamic Arabic; Sign
Biology for Power
or Religious Language; Music;
the Blind; Mechanics;
Mathematics, Education Business Studies
General Electricity;
Alternative B (IRE) or
Science Drawing and
Hindu
Design; Aviation
Religious
Technology;
Education
Computer
(HRE)
Studies

Compulsory Minimum Minimum of Optional or Optional or

of two or one or maximum of maximum of one
 maximum maximum of
one
of three two

7.5 Grading System

Mean Grading

A− B+ B B− C+ C C− D+ D D−
Grade A (minus (plus (plain (minus (plus (plain (minus (plus (plain (minus E
) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )

84
Point 73– 52– 31– 10
– 80–74 66–60 59–53 45–39 38–32 24–18 17–11
s 67 46 25 –7
81

Subject Grading

B B− C D D−
A− B+ C+ C− D+
Grade A (plain (minus (plain (plain (minus E
(minus) (plus) (plus) (minus) (plus)
) ) ) ) )

Point
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
s

The number of students admitted to public universities through the Kenya Universities and
Colleges Central Placement Service KUCCPS), prior to 2012 known as Kenya Universities Joint
Admissions Board (JAB), depends on the total number of beds available in all the available in all
the public universities. Nonetheless, those who miss out but attained the minimum university
entry mark of C+ or C with a relevant diploma certificate are admitted through the parallel
degree programs (module II) if they can afford the full fees for the course. Students who manage
a grade of C+ qualify to do a degree course at the university. Owing to the Competition, and
fewer places at the university, those with B and in a few cases B- and above are taken for degree
courses at the public universities and benefit by paying government-subsidized fees. The rest join
private universities or middle-level colleges.

7.6 Technical and Vocational education and Training Institutions

These institutions operate under the state department of vocational and technical training under
the helm of a principal secretary. They award artisan, craft and diploma and higher national
diploma certificates after successful completion of relevant courses. Courses offered by these
institutions include Business Education, Accounting, Secretarial Studies, Nursing, Teacher
Training, Computer Studies, Journalism, Media, Design, Culinary Studies, Foreign Languages,
Tourism and Engineering. In order of credibility or accreditation, national polytechnics rank
first, followed by government training institutes, teacher training colleges and private
institutions. Although generally termed colleges, these institutions do not ward degrees. Degrees
are only awarded by Universities and Technical Universities. Over time, education has been a
critical component in the pursuit of a meaningful life. People can get knowledge, skills, and
perspectives important for career success, personal growth, and social contributions.

7.7 University Education

There are 48 universities in Kenya, 22 of which are public and 26 private. The University of
Nairobi is the oldest public university in Kenya while KAG East university is the oldest among
the private universities.

While education accessibility has been of major importance at the primary and secondary levels
in Kenya, the attempt of making education accessible has not been implemented at the higher
education level, which leaves students from a lower socioeconomic status at a disadvantage
compared to those of a higher socioeconomic status. In recent years there has been an increase in
the cost of higher education worldwide, and there is no exception for Kenya which is limiting
access to specific socioeconomic groups and those from different regions and ethnic groups since
it favors and is more accessible to those who can afford it. There are very few students from
disadvantaged backgrounds attending higher education institutions which is a reflection of the
society and the quality of prior education. There are many social inequalities present in Kenya
which have a direct impact on education such as: disparities in distribution of national income,
security, and employment, levels of investment, health care, and public services are also evident
across populations, genders, and ethnic groups. In an observation done by the Society for
International Development, in 2004 10% of Kenya's population controlled about 42% of the
national income while 10% contents with significantly less than 1%.

Immediately after independence, Kenya's public higher education was free for all students
regardless of their socioeconomic status; it was fully funded by the government. This created a
high demand for higher education which raised a concern for donor agencies. At that time, the
demand was continuously increasing, but Kenya's economy was not improving, so the
government established a cost sharing and cost recovery model. In the cost sharing model, the
government would cover part of the cost, but the remaining cost was the institutions and
families’ responsibility. After this change, the student loan scheme was introduced. It was the
responsibility of the Higher Education Loans Board (HELB) to pay out loans to Kenyan students
that are interested in attending a higher education institution; there have been concerns that the
loans are not being distributed equitably which has not fully improved the higher education
access issues. Kenya has also explored the Module II admissions plan. In this plan, the admitted
students must pay their full tuition fees but also pay an amount that is equivalent to attending a
private institution. This has widened the accessibility gap for families of lower socioeconomic
status as they will not be able to pay the amount of tuition, so higher education remains
unaffordable and inaccessible for those students.

8.0 Financing in the system of education

8.1 Financing in Kenyan Education system

In Kenya, education financing involves a cost-sharing approach where the government,

households, communities and other stakeholders contribute. The government provides funding
for teacher salaries, infrastructure and bursaries, while households cover supplies, equipment and
sometimes tuition. Other sources include private sector investments, religious organizations,
NGOs and development partners. This is done in the following ways:
1. Government Funding:
 Teacher salaries: The government primarily funds the salaries of teachers in public
schools.
 Infrastructure: Public resources are used to develop and maintain school infrastructure.
 Bursaries and Scholarships: The government provides financial assistance to needy
students through bursaries and scholarships.
 General Taxation and Education-specific taxes: The government raises funds through
general taxation and potentially through education-specific levels.

2. Household Contributions:
 School fees: Parents and guardians contribute school fees, particularly for secondary
education.
 Supplies and equipment: Households often cover the cost of school supplies, uniforms
and other equipment.
 Operational costs: Parents may also contribute to operational costs like transportation,
water and electricity.

3. Other funding Sources:

 Private Sector: Businesses may invest in education through sponsorships, endowments
or scholarships.
  Religious Organizations: Religious institutions can provide funding for schools and
other educational programs.
 NGOs and Development Partners: Non-governmental organizations and international
development partners contribute to education through grants and projects.
 Community Financing: Local communities may contribute financially or through labor
to school development and maintenance.
 Farming: Many Kenyan secondary schools engage in farming to generate revenue and
supplement their finances.

8.1.1 Key players in Education Financing:

 Government
 Parents and Families
 Communities
 Private Sector
 NGOs and Development Partners

8.1.2 Cost- Sharing Policy:

 The “cost-sharing” policy in Kenya, which began in 1988, requires that education costs
be shared between the public sector, households, communities and other stakeholders
(Abagi et al., n.d.).
 This policy aims to ensure that all stakeholders contribute to the financing of education.

8.1.3 Challenges in Financing the education System

 Insufficient funding is a major challenge, particularly for higher education.

 Low recovery rates for student loans can also pose a problem.
 Increasing the number of needy students without adequate funding can strain the system.

8.1.4 Ongoing Efforts to improve Financing

 The government is exploring new funding models and mechanisms to improve the
sustainability and equity of education financing.
 The Higher Education Financing Model (NHEFM) is an example of a new model that
aims to delink funding from automatic placement and prioritize students’ financial needs.
 Efforts are being made to increase transparency and accountability in the use of education
funds.

8.2 Financing in British Education system

The education system is financed through a combination of government funding, tuition fees and
student loans. State-funded schools are primarily funded by the government, with additional
funding from local authorities (Marginson, 2018a). Higher education is increasingly funded
through tuition fees, with government-subsidized loans and maintenance loans available to
students. Private schools are funded entirely by tuition fees from their students.

8.2.1 State-Funded Schools:

Funding:
Mainly through government grants and local authority funding, with funding allocated through a
combination of revenue and capital funding.
Distribution:
Funding is distributed to maintained schools by local authorities and directly to academies by the
Department of education.
Additional Funding:
Schools may receive additional funding through specific grants, such as the teachers’ pay
additional grant.

8.2.2 Higher Education:

Tuition Fees:
Higher education institutions (universities and colleges) are primarily funded through tuition
fees, which are capped at a certain level.
Student Loans:
Students can take out government-subsidized loans to cover tuition fees and maintenance.
Maintenance Loans:
These loans help students with their living costs while studying.
Repayment:
Student loans are repaid on an income-contingent basis, with graduates repaying a percentage of
their income over a certain threshold.
Research Funding:
University research is funded through a combination of public funding, industry funding,
charities and international sources.

8.2.3 Private Schools:

Funding: Private schools are entirely funded by tuition fees paid by parents or guardians.

The British education funding system has evolved over time, with a shift towards tuition fees and
student loans in higher education (Marginson, 2018b). Also, universities are facing financial
pressure due to falling per-student funding and changes in visa regulations, which have reduced
international enrollment.

9.0 Teachers’ Training in Education System

In the Kenyan education system, teacher training is a two-tiered system for primary and
secondary school teachers. Prospective primary teachers are trained for two years at Teacher
Training Colleges (TTCs) (Leaver et al., 2021). Secondary school teachers can be trained in
universities (four-year degree programs) or TTCs (three-year diploma programs). Both primary
and secondary school teachers are required to complete a practicum as part of their training.

9.1 Primary School Teacher Training:

Entry Requirements:
Applicants must hold a Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) with a mean grade of
C.
Program Duration:
Two-year program at Teacher Training Colleges.
Curriculum:
Focuses on pedagogy, subject matter knowledge and classroom management skills.
Practicum:
Includes a practical component where trainee teachers gain experience in actual classrooms.

9.2 Secondary School Teacher Training

Entry Requirements: Applicants must have a KCSE mean grade of C+ (plus) and a C+ in the
two teaching subjects of interest.
Program options: Bachelor of education degree for four-year program and three months’
practicum. Diploma in Education for three years.
Curriculum: Covers a wider range of subjects, including educational foundations, psychology,
curriculum development and teaching methodologies.
In-Service Teacher Training:
Mandatory Professional Development: Teachers are required to participate in mandatory
professional development sessions to enhance their skills and knowledge.
Teacher Mentor Program: Programs like Teach for Kenya’s in-service training aim to equip
teachers with new technologies and teaching strategies.

9.3 Teachers’ training in British Education System

Teachers training primarily involves completing a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE)
or an equivalent qualification, often alongside a Master’s degree (Roness & and Smith, 2009).
This training focuses on developing practical teaching skills, understanding the National
curriculum, managing classrooms and creating a safe learning environment. The PGCE, for
example, includes modules assessed through assignments and online induction sessions.
Additionally, beginning teachers are expected to demonstrate knowledge of the subject matter,
the curriculum and commitment to fundamental British values.
The training is done in the following way:
1. Initial Teacher Training (ITT):
PGCE: The main route to becoming a qualified teacher in England is through a Postgraduate
Certificate in Education (PGCE) program.
Other Qualifications:
There are other pathways to qualify on, such as the school Direct program, which focuses on
learning through school placements rather than traditional university courses and the Activate
program, which allows experienced professionals in other fields to train as teachers.
Focus on Practical skills:
Initial Teacher Training emphasizes developing practical teaching skills, including instructing
pupils, managing classroom activities and setting homework.
Content Knowledge:
Teachers are expected to have a strong understanding of the National Curriculum and their
specific subject matter.
2. PGCE Structure and Content:
Modules: PGCE programs often include modules focused on specific areas of teaching, such as
curriculum development, classroom management and assessment.

Online Induction: Some programs include online induction sessions to provide initial guidance
and support for trainee teachers.
Assignments: Modules are typically assessed through assignments or other assessments that
allow trainee teachers to demonstrate their understanding and skills.
Practical Experience: Initial Teacher Training includes practical teaching placements in
schools, allowing trainee teachers to apply their knowledge and skills in a real-world setting.

9.4 Differences in Teacher Training

Here's a detailed comparison between teacher training in the Kenyan education system and
the British education system (focused on England, as education policy differs slightly across
the UK). The comparison is organized across key categories:

1. Entry Requirements
Kenya

 Primary school teachers: Certificate (P1) and Diploma (DPTE) programs; KCSE
minimum grade C (or C+ for diploma).
 Secondary school teachers: Bachelor's degree in Education ([Link].) or Postgraduate
Diploma in Education (PGDE) after any relevant degree.
 Subject-specific qualifications required.

Britain (England)

 Primary and Secondary teachers: Minimum of GCSEs in English, Mathematics (and

Science for primary), plus a degree.
 Entry into Initial Teacher Training (ITT) requires passing professional skills tests and
interviews.
 Typically, a 2:2 or above undergraduate degree is required.

2. Teacher Training Pathways

Kenya

 Pre-service training offered through:

 Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs) for diploma.
 Universities for [Link]. or PGDE.
 Training focuses on subject mastery, pedagogy, and practicum.
 Curriculum recently updated to align with the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC).

Britain

 Training can be done via:

 University-led programs (PGCE – Postgraduate Certificate in Education).
 School-based training (e.g., School Direct, Teach First, SCITT).
 Emphasis on classroom-based training and evidence-based pedagogy.
 Strong focus on mentorship and professional development during training.

3. Duration of Training

Kenya

 Diploma in Teacher Education: 3 years.

 Bachelor of Education: 4 years.
 PGDE: 1 year.

Britain

 Undergraduate route ([Link]. or BA/BSc with QTS): 3–4 years.

 Postgraduate route (PGCE): 1 year.
  School-based programs (e.g., School Direct): Typically, 1 year.

4. Teaching Practicum

Kenya

 Practicum (Teaching Practice) is mandatory.

 Lasts typically 3 months during final year.
 Supervised by college/university lecturers and cooperating teachers.

Britain

 Extensive in-school placements across at least two contrasting schools.

 Practicum integrated throughout the program.
 Ongoing observation and structured assessment.

5. Certification and Registration

Kenya

 Teachers must register with the Teachers Service Commission (TSC).

 TSC provides professional certification and employment.

Britain

 Teachers must attain Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) via the Teaching Regulation
Agency (TRA).
 Induction year required (NQT or ECT year) for full registration.

6. Continuing Professional Development (CPD)

Kenya

 CPD is emerging as a formal requirement.

 TSC now mandates periodic Teacher Professional Development (TPD).
 Implementation is ongoing and met with some resistance.

Britain

 CPD is a standard and ongoing requirement.

 Schools and local authorities support regular in-service training.
 Opportunities for career progression tied to CPD (e.g., NPQ qualifications).

7. Challenges and Opportunities

Aspect Kenya Britain
Infrastructure Often limited in rural areas Generally well-resourced
CBC implementation
Curriculum Changes Frequent reforms in teacher standards
challenges
Recruitment Issues Understaffing in rural areas Shortages in STEM and SEND areas
Strong induction and mentorship
Professional Support Limited mentorship structures
frameworks

Summary Table

Category Kenya Britain (England)

Entry Qualification KCSE + TTC/University Degree + GCSEs + skills tests
Training Pathways TTCs, Universities University PGCE, School-based routes
Duration 1–4 years 1–4 years
Teaching Practice 3-month placement Multiple in-school placements
Certification TSC registration QTS via Teaching Regulation Agency
CPD Emerging (TPD via TSC) Mandatory and structured
System Challenges Resources, CBC rollout Recruitment in specific subjects

The aspect of Language and Education in The education system of Kenya and that of
Britain

The aspect of language and education in the Kenyan education system and the British education
system:

10.0 Language and Education: Kenya vs Britain

Aspect Kenya Britain (England)

- English is the official medium of
Official Language - English is the primary language of
instruction from upper primary
of Instruction instruction at all levels.
(Grade 4) onward.
- Kiswahili is taught as a compulsory - Other languages taught as foreign
subject and used in lower primary languages, e.g., French, Spanish,
(Grades 1–3). German.
- Highly multilingual: over 60 - Mostly monolingual English-speaking
Multilingual
indigenous languages spoken population, with some Welsh, Scots
Context
nationwide. Gaelic, Irish in UK regions.
- Local languages are introduced in
early education (Grades 1–3) under - Some schools offer bilingual or
Competency-Based Curriculum immersion programs but limited.
(CBC).
Aspect Kenya Britain (England)
Policy on - Early grades: Mother tongue/local - English exclusively used, with
Language of language encouraged for support for English as an Additional
Instruction foundational literacy. Language (EAL) learners.
- Switch to English and Kiswahili as
- EAL policies for non-native speakers
the language of instruction from
to ensure inclusion.
Grade 4.
Language in - Kiswahili is a national language - English language and literature
Curriculum and compulsory in school. compulsory subjects.
- English language taught intensively - Foreign languages optional or
from early primary. compulsory at secondary level.
Language - Balancing local languages and - Supporting learners with EAL in an
Challenges English for effective learning. English-dominant system.
- Limited teaching materials and
- Addressing needs of
trained teachers in mother tongue
immigrant/refugee children.
languages.
- Language education tied to cultural - English as a cultural and practical
Cultural and
preservation and national unity tool; minority languages promoted
Identity Role
(Swahili). regionally (Welsh, Gaelic).
- National exams in English and
Language - English literacy exams standardized;
Kiswahili; local languages less
Assessment foreign language exams optional.
assessed.

Summary

Key Point Kenya Britain (England)

Primary language of Mother tongue/local languages (Grades
English (all grades)
instruction 1–3), then English/Kiswahili
National language English dominant; regional
Kiswahili as unifying national language
role minority languages recognized
Language diversity High multilingualism Mainly English-speaking
Support for language Limited resources for mother tongue Strong EAL support for
learners instruction; growing CBC support immigrant learners
Curriculum Balanced between local languages, English literacy plus foreign
emphasis English, and Kiswahili languages optional

REFERENCES
1. Abagi, O., Nzomo, J., Otieno, W., & Varghese, E. N. V. (n.d.). Private higher education in
Kenya.
2. Leaver, C., Ozier, O., Serneels, P., & Zeitlin, A. (2021). Recruitment, Effort, and Retention
Effects of Performance Contracts for Civil Servants: Experimental Evidence from Rwandan
Primary Schools. American Economic Review, 111(7), 2213–2246.
[Link]
3. Marginson, S. (2018a). Global trends in higher education financing: The United Kingdom.
International Journal of Educational Development, 58, 26–36.
[Link]
4. M’mboga Akala, D. B. (2021). Revisiting education reform in Kenya: A case of Competency
Based Curriculum (CBC). Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 3(1), 100107.
[Link]
5. Riechi, A. R. (2020). The Education System of Kenya. In The Education Systems of Africa
(pp. 1–15). Springer, Cham. [Link]
6. Roness, D., & and Smith, K. (2009). Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) and
student motivation. European Journal of Teacher Education, 32(2), 111–134.
[Link]
7. S P Chaube, A Chaube (2014). Comparative Education.