GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is responsible for several essential functions that are crucial for the proper
breakdown, absorption, and utilization of food and nutrients. Some of the general functions of the
digestive system include:

1. Ingestion
- process of taking in food through the mouth and into the digestive tract
- first step in the digestive process
2. Mechanical Digestion
- physical breakdown of food into smaller particles through actions like chewing, mixing, and
churning
- increases the surface area of food, making it easier for enzymes to work on the food during
chemical digestion
3. Chemical Digestion
- enzymatic breakdown of complex food molecules into simpler forms that can be absorbed
and utilized by the body
- enzymes secreted by various organs, such as the salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and
small intestine, play a vital role in chemical digestion.
4. Secretion
- release of digestive juices and enzymes from glands and organs into the digestive tract
- these secretions facilitate the breakdown of food and help in the absorption of nutrients
5. Absorption
- process of absorbing nutrients, water, and electrolytes from the digested food into the
bloodstream through the walls of the small intestine
- these nutrients are then transported to different parts of the body to support various functions
6. Motility
- movement of food along the digestive tract through muscular contractions
- Peristalsis, rhythmic contractions of the smooth muscles, propels food from the mouth to the
anus, allowing it to undergo digestion and absorption efficiently
7. Elimination (defecation)
- process of removing indigestible waste products and unabsorbed materials from the body
through the rectum and anus
- eliminates substances that the body cannot digest or utilize
8. Homeostasis
- plays a critical role in maintaining the body's internal balance by regulating the intake and
absorption of nutrients, water, and electrolytes

LAYERS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

1. Mucosa
- innermost layer of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and it lines the lumen of the digestive system
- consists of three main components:
a. Epithelium
- topmost layer of the mucosa
- made up of specialized cells that have distinct functions depending on the region of the
GI tract
1. In the small intestine, the epithelial cells have microvilli called brush borders that
increase the surface area for nutrient absorption
2. In the stomach, specialized cells secrete hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes
 b. Lamina propria
- a thin layer of connective tissue located beneath the epithelium
- contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and immune cells
- plays a vital role in the absorption of nutrients from the lumen into the bloodstream
- houses immune cells that help protect against pathogens and foreign substances known
as mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)

c. Muscularis mucosae
- a thin layer of smooth muscle located beneath the lamina propria
- responsible for small movements and contractions of the mucosal layer, which aid in
mixing and propelling the contents within the GI tract
- helps with the mechanical breakdown of food and ensures efficient contact between
the mucosa and luminal contents for digestion and absorption

2. Submucosa
- a layer of connective tissue located beneath the mucosa
- contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves, and various glands
- Functions:
a) Blood Supply: The submucosa contains a rich network of blood vessels that transport
nutrients and absorbed substances away from the GI tract
b) Nourishment: It supplies nutrients to the mucosa for its metabolic needs and supports the
regeneration of the mucosal lining
c) Nerve Plexuses: This layer contains nerve plexuses, such as the submucosal plexus
(Meissner's plexus), which controls the movement of the muscularis mucosae and
glandular secretion
 CIRCULAR MUSCLES

3. Muscularis Externa LONGITUDINAL MUSCLES

- a layer of smooth muscle that surrounds the submucosa.

- Functions:
a) Motility: The muscularis externa is responsible for peristalsis, which is the coordinated,
rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles that propel food along the digestive
tract
b) Mechanical Digestion: This layer also aids in mechanical digestion by mixing and
churning the food with digestive enzymes and gastric juices

4. Serosa
- outermost layer of the GI tract is the serosa, which is a thin, protective layer made of connective
tissue and simple squamous epithelium
- Functions:
a) Protection: The serosa provides a smooth, slippery surface that reduces friction between
the GI tract and surrounding organs, preventing abrasions and damage
b) Anchoring: It anchors the GI tract to the abdominal cavity and surrounding structures

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE GASTRONINTESTINAL TRACT

I. PERITONEUM
- the largest serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers most of the abdominal
organs
- layers: lines
abdominal wall

~ protects and supports organs

a) Parietal peritoneum
- outer layer of the peritoneum that lines the walls of the abdominal cavity
- helps to protect and support the abdominal organs and provides a smooth surface
that allows them to move against each other without friction during various
movements, such as breathing and digestion
covers organs
b. Visceral peritoneum lubricating (Serosa) flvid in Peritoneal Cavity

- inner layer of the peritoneum that covers the surface of most abdominal organs,
including the liver, stomach, intestines, and spleen
- also known as the serosa of the organs it covers
- provides a protective covering for the abdominal organs and secretes a lubricating
fluid, the peritoneal fluid, which allows the organs to slide against each other
smoothly during movements and prevents friction
b) Parietal cavity
- Found in between the parietal and visceral peritoneum is a potential space called
the peritoneal cavity
- filled with a small amount of serous fluid, the peritoneal fluid, which lubricates the
surfaces of the peritoneum, reducing friction and allowing the organs to move freely
within the abdominal cavity
- serves to help in immune defense and nutrient exchange within the peritoneal
cavity.
- Major peritoneal folds:
whole abdominal
cavity
a) Greater Omentum fat
stomach to
-

- largest peritoneal fold and is often described as an "apron-like" structure

- attached to the greater curvature of the stomach and extends downward over the
-

anterior surface of the small intestine before looping back and attaching to the
transverse colon
- contains a significant amount of adipose tissue (fat) and plays a role in storing fat,
protecting the abdominal organs, and helping to contain and isolate areas of
infection or inflammation.
abdominal wall diaphragm
b) Falciform Ligament liver to anterior
~

- a thin, sickle-shaped fold of peritoneum that attaches the liver to the anterior
abdominal wall and the diaphragm
- located between the right and left lobes of the liver and helps to stabilize and
support the liver within the abdominal cavity
c) Lesser Omentum - liver to stomach and duodenum

- a double layer of peritoneum that extends between the lesser curvature of the
stomach and the proximal part of the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine)
- connects the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach and the first part of the
duodenum
- contains important blood vessels, including the hepatic artery and portal vein,
which supply the liver with oxygen and nutrients.
d) Mesentery small intestine posterior
-
to abdominal wall

- fan-shaped peritoneal fold that attaches the small intestine to the posterior
abdominal wall
- provides support and contains the blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics that supply
the small intestine
- allows the small intestine to move and change position during digestion and other
abdominal movements
 e) Mesocolon large
- posterior
intestine to abdominal wall

- a peritoneal fold that attaches the colon (large intestine) to the posterior abdominal
wall
- provides support to the colon and contains the blood vessels and lymphatics that
supply the colon
II. Mouth
- Oral or buccal cavity
- covered externally by skin and internally by a mucous membrane, which consists of
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- Buccinator muscles and connective tissue lie between the skin and mucous membranes of the
cheeks
- anterior portions of the cheeks end at the lips

-
front

opening between oral cavity

and oropharynx
-
passage for food and air

-
back

>
forms lateral walls
of oral cavity
>
-

> skin ,
buccinator
muscles , fat , inner

mucous membrane

> chewing speaking,

,

keeping food inside

·
where Saliva is released

- Structures in the buccal cavity:

a) Lips or Labia
- fleshy folds surrounding the opening of the mouth
- contain the orbicularis oris muscle and are covered externally by skin and internally
by a mucous membrane
- labial frenulum – a midline fold of mucous membrane that attaches the inner
surface of each lip to its corresponding gum
- During chewing, contraction of the buccinators muscles in the cheeks and
orbicularis oris muscle in the lips helps keep food between the upper and lower
teeth. These muscles also assist in speech
b) Oral vestibule
- space bounded externally by the cheeks and lips and internally by the gums and
teeth
- space that extends from the gums and teeth to the fauces, the opening between
the oral cavity and the oropharynx (throat)
c) Palate
- a wall or septum that separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity, forming the
roof of the mouth
- makes it possible to chew and breathe at the same time
- Structures:
i. hard palate—the anterior portion of the roof of the mouth—is formed by the
maxillae and palatine bones and is covered by a mucous membrane; it forms
a bony partition between the oral and nasal cavities
ii. soft palate, which forms the posterior portion of the roof of the mouth, is an
arch-shaped muscular partition between the oropharynx and nasopharynx
that is lined with mucous membrane
d) Uvula -
when touched
reflex
gag

- hanging from the free border of the soft palate is a conical muscular process
- During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula are drawn superiorly, closing off the
nasopharynx and preventing swallowed foods and liquids from entering the nasal
cavity
e) Salivary Glands
- a gland that releases a secretion called saliva into the oral cavity
- saliva is secreted to keep the mucous membranes of the mouth and pharynx moist
and to cleanse the mouth and teeth
- when food enters the mouth the secretion of saliva increases, and it lubricates,
dissolves, and begins the chemical breakdown of the food
 - Minor salivary glands:
i. Labial – lips
ii. Buccal – cheeks
iii. Palatal glands – palate
iv. Lingual glands – tongue
- Major salivary glands:
i. Parotid glands
- located inferior and anterior to the ears, between the skin and the
masseter muscle
- secretes saliva into the oral cavity via a parotid duct that pierces the
buccinator muscle to open into the vestibule opposite the second
maxillary (upper) molar tooth
ii. Submandibular glands
- found in the floor of the mouth; they are medial and partly inferior to the
body of the mandible
- their ducts, the submandibular ducts, run under the mucosa on either side
of the midline of the floor of the mouth and enter the oral cavity proper
lateral to the lingual frenulum
iii. Sublingual glands
- found beneath the tongue and superior to the submandibular glands
- their ducts, the lesser sublingual ducts, open into the floor of the mouth in
the oral cavity proper

Saliva is a clear, watery fluid produced by the salivary glands in the mouth
98 5 %
.
=
H28

- Composition of Saliva:
1% Organic
= Components
0 5%Inorganic components
.
=

i. Water 98 5 % .

- makes up about 99% X of its volume

- provides moisture to keep the mouth lubricated and aids in the formation
of a moist food bolus for easier swallowing
ii. Electrolytes
- contains sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, and phosphate ions
- help maintain the pH balance in the mouth and contribute to the taste
of saliva
iii. Enzymes
- initiate the process of chemical digestion
- primary enzyme in saliva is salivary amylase, also known as ptyalin, which
breaks down complex carbohydrates (starches) into simpler sugars like
maltose and dextrin
iv. Mucus
- provides lubrication and helps in the formation of the food bolus
- aids in protecting the oral mucosa from abrasion and irritation
v. Antibacterial Compounds
- contains lysozyme and immunoglobulins
- help to inhibit the growth of bacteria and protect the mouth from
infections
- Functions of Saliva:
i. Lubrication: moistens the mouth, tongue, and food, making it easier to chew
and swallow. It prevents friction and irritation, ensuring smooth movement of
the food bolus through the digestive tract.
 ii. Initial Digestion: Salivary amylase begins the digestion of carbohydrates in the
mouth. It breaks down starches into smaller sugar molecules, preparing them
for further digestion in the small intestine.
iii. Taste Perception: helps dissolve and transport taste molecules to the taste buds
on the tongue. This is essential for detecting and experiencing various tastes
like sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.
iv. Protection: contains antibacterial compounds that help in maintaining oral
hygiene by inhibiting bacterial growth. It also helps to wash away food
particles and debris from the teeth and gums, reducing the risk of dental
cavities and gum disease.
v. pH Regulation: The electrolytes in saliva play a role in buffering the pH of the
mouth, preventing it from becoming too acidic or basic. This is important for
maintaining a healthy environment for the teeth and oral tissues.
vi. Speech: helps in the formation of speech sounds by moistening the oral cavity
and facilitating smooth movement of the tongue and lips.

**Salivation
- process of producing and releasing saliva into the mouth
- a reflex action that occurs in response to various stimuli, both psychological and
physiological
- primarily controlled by the autonomic nervous system, specifically the
parasympathetic division
PAPILLAE f) Tongue covered w/
-
mucous membrane

houses taste buds

- a muscular organ (skeletal muscle) located on the floor of the mouth

·

- helps with taste perception, pushing food back for swallowing, and assisting in the
formation of speech
- lingual frenulum – a fold of mucous membrane in the midline of the undersurface of
the tongue, is attached to the floor of the mouth and aids in limiting the movement
of the tongue posteriorly
g) Teeth or Dentes
- hard, calcified structures found in the oral cavity Flower
upper
- situated in sockets of the alveolar processes of the mandible and maxillae
- play a crucial role in the process of mastication, or chewing, which is the first step in
breaking down food for digestion
- essential for cutting, tearing, and grinding food into smaller pieces, making it easier
to swallow and digest teeth
-anchors in place

- Gingivae or gums – a tissue that covers the alveolar process which extends slightly
into each socket
- Periodontal ligament or membrane – consists of dense fibrous connective tissue that
anchors the teeth to the socket walls
- human adult mouth typically contains 32 teeth:
i. Incisors (8)
- the front teeth in the mouth and are sharp-edged for cutting food
ii. Canines or Cuspids (4)
- pointed teeth next to the incisors
- allows them to tear and pierce food
iii. Premolars or Bicuspids (8)
- located behind the canines and have two or more rounded cusps
- assist in grinding and tearing food
 iv. Molars (12)
- large, flat teeth at the back of the mouth and have multiple cusps
- responsible for grinding and crushing food
- structures of a tooth:
i. Enamel
- outermost and hardest layer of the tooth
- composed of a mineral called hydroxyapatite, which provides strength
and protection to the tooth
- resistant to wear and tear and serves as a shield against acids and
bacteria that can cause tooth decay
ii. Dentin
- lies beneath the enamel and is a calcified tissue that makes up most of
the tooth's structure
- not as hard as enamel but still provides support to the enamel and acts
as a shock absorber against forces while chewing
iii. Pulp
- innermost part of the tooth and contains blood vessels, nerves, and
connective tissues
- the living part of the tooth
- responsible for nourishing the tooth during its development
- transmits sensory information, allowing us to perceive sensations such as
hot, cold, and pain
- Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the mouth
a) Mastication
- mechanical digestion known as the process of chewing
- food is manipulated by the tongue, ground by the teeth, and mixed with saliva
- Bolus – food reduced to a soft, flexible, easily swallowed mass
b) Salivary amylase
chemical - released by salivary glands
- initiates the breakdown of starch (chemical digestion)
-

c) Lingual lipase
- secreted by lingual glands
- becomes activated in the acidic environment of the stomach and thus starts to
work after food is swallowed
- breaks down dietary triglycerides into fatty acids and diglycerides (chemical
digestion)
DEGLUTITION
/ process of swallowing
III. Pharynx
- a funnel-shaped tube that extends
from the internal nares to the
esophagus posteriorly and to the
larynx anteriorly
- Swallowed food passes from the
mouth into the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx
- the muscular contractions of these
areas help propel food into the
esophagus and then into the
stomach
IV. Esophagus
- a collapsible muscular tube, about 25 cm (10 in.) long
- lies posterior to the trachea
- begins at the inferior end of the laryngopharynx and passes through the mediastinum anterior
to the vertebral column
- pierces the diaphragm through an opening called the esophageal hiatus, and ends in the
superior portion of the stomach hole
in diaphragm

- Sphincter muscles:
a) Upper Esophageal Sphincter (UES)
- consist of skeletal muscles
- regulates the movement of food from the pharynx into the esophagus
b) Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES) prevents acd reflux
~

- regulates the movement of food from the esophagus into the stomach
- secretes mucus and transports food into the stomach
- does not produce digestive enzymes, and it does not carry
on absorption
- Deglutition – commonly known as swallowing, is a complex
and coordinated process that allows us to move food and
liquids from the mouth to the stomach
- Peristalsis – a rhythmic and involuntary muscular
contraction that helps move food and other materials
through the digestive tract and certain other hollow organs,
such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, and ureters.

V. Stomach
- J-shaped enlargement of the GI tract
- Temporary storage and mixing for 4 hours
- connects the esophagus to the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine
- regions of the stomach:
a) Cardia
- surrounds the superior opening of the stomach
b) Fundus
- rounded portion superior to and to the left of the cardia
c) Body
- large central portion of the stomach inferior to the fundus
d) Pylorus
- region of the stomach that connects to the duodenum
- Pyloric antrum – connects to the body of the stomach
- Pyloric canal – connects to the duodenum
- Pyloric sphincter – a smooth muscle sphincter that controls the release of chime to
the small intestines
- Rugae – large folds of the mucusa (appears when stomach is relaxed)
- Lesser curvature – concave medial of the stomach
- Greater curvature – convex lateral border
- Mechanical and chemical digestion in the stomach:
a) Mixing waves
- peristaltic movements of the stomach which occurs every 15 to 25 seconds
- macerate food, mix it with secretions of the gastric glands
- Chyme – a soupy liquid containing the macerated foods and gland secretions
 - Gastric emptying – mixing wave periodically forces about 3 mL of chyme into the
duodenum through the pyloric sphincter
- foods may remain in the fundus for about an hour without becoming mixed with
gastric juice
- churning action mixes chyme with acidic gastric juice, inactivating salivary amylase
and activating lingual lipase, which starts to digest triglycerides into fatty acids and
diglycerides
b) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
- stomach's parietal cells secretion
- creates an acidic environment in the stomach with a pH of around 2, which is
essential for the activation and optimal function of pepsin
- helps to denature proteins, making them more accessible to enzymatic breakdown
- helps to kill harmful bacteria and pathogens present in the ingested food, playing a
role in the body's immune defense
c) Pepsin
- a proteolytic enzyme produced in its inactive form, pepsinogen secreted by chief
cells
- when exposed to the acidic environment created by HCl, pepsinogen undergoes
enzymatic cleavage and is converted into its active form, pepsin
- responsible for breaking down proteins into smaller peptides, preparing them for
further digestion and absorption in the small intestine
d) Mucus
- Secreted by surface mucous cells and mucous neck cells
- Forms a protective barrier that prevents digestion of stomach wall

·
·
mucus protects stomach from adds and enzymes

l
·
additional protection deeper in the gland

·
HCl lowers DH
Intrinsic is to absorb VI B12
·

for protein digestion & preventing bacterial growth

pepsinogen is an Inactive enzyme activated by HCl to produce PEPSIN

·

Pepsin breakdown proteins to smaller Compounds / peptides

·

Gastric lipase begins fat digestion in stomach

"
·
"Interoendocrine cells
·

gastrin stimulates paretal Chief cells to increase gastric motility acid production
VI. Accessory Digestive Organs

a. Pancreas
- a retroperitoneal gland that is about 12–15 cm (5–6 in.) long and 2.5 cm (1 in.) thick,
- lies posterior to the greater curvature of the stomach
- produces digestive enzymes to digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins
- Structures:
1. Acini 99 5 % .

- constitutes to 99% of the pancreas

- exocrine portion of the pancreas
- secretes pancreatic juices Enzymes
2. Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans) Albumin & Globulin

- constitutes to the remaining 1% %

stabilizing enzymes 0 5
.

In the pancreatic juices

In responsible for protein

- endocrine portion of the pancreas content

- secretes hormones such as glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and

pancreatic polypeptide
- Pancreatic juices
- a clear, colorless liquid consisting mostly of water, some salts, sodium
bicarbonate, and enzymes
- pancreas secretes 1200-1500 mL of pancreatic juice
- components:
1. Sodium bicarbonate Inorganic -
substance

- gives pancreatic juice a slightly alkaline pH (7.1–8.2) that buffers acidic

gastric juice in chyme, stops the action of pepsin from the stomach
- creates the proper pH for the action of digestive enzymes in the small
intestine
2. Enzymes for fluid balance ~

- pancreatic amylase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, elastase,

pancreatic lipase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease, trypsinogen, trypsin
inhibitor, and enterokinase
PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES LIPOLYTIC ENZYMES AMYLOLYTIC ENZYMES

breakdown proteins ·
breakdown lipids breakdown starch or

to peptides and amino carbs

acids
b. Liver
- heaviest gland of the body, weighing about 1.4 kg (about 3 lb) in an average adult
- functions:
1. Produces bile (hepatocytes)
- secretes 800-100 mL of bile
released
&
- Bile – a yellow, brownish, or olive-green liquid that has a pH of 7.6–8.6 and
by hepatocytes

consists mostly of water, bile salts, cholesterol, a phospholipid (lecithin), bile

pigments (bilirubin), and several ions
- bile helps in the emulsification, the process of breaking down large lipid
globules
2. Carbohydrate metabolism
- liver is especially important in maintaining a normal blood glucose level
- when blood glucose is low, the liver can break down glycogen to glucose
and release the glucose into the bloodstream
- convert certain amino acids and lactic acid to glucose, and it can convert
other sugars, such as fructose and galactose, into glucose
- when blood glucose is high, as occurs just after eating a meal, the liver
converts glucose to glycogen and triglycerides for storage
3. Lipid metabolism (hepatocytes)
- store some triglycerides
- break down fatty acids to generate ATP
- synthesize lipoproteins, which transport fatty acids, triglycerides, and
cholesterol to and from body cells
- synthesize cholesterol
- use cholesterol to make bile salts
4. Protein metabolism (hepatocytes)
- deaminate (remove the amino group, NH2, from) amino acids so that the
amino acids can be used for ATP production or converted to carbohydrates
or fats
- resulting toxic ammonia (NH3) is then converted into the much less toxic urea,
which is excreted in urine
- synthesize most plasma proteins, such as alpha and beta globulins, albumin,
prothrombin, and fibrinogen
5. Processing of drugs and hormones
- can detoxify substances such as alcohol and excrete drugs such as penicillin,
erythromycin, and sulfonamides into bile
- chemically alter or excrete thyroid hormones and steroid hormones such as
estrogens and aldosterone
6. Excretion of bilirubin why
- bile isgreen

- bilirubin, derived from the heme of aged red blood cells, is absorbed by the
liver from the blood and secreted into bile
- most of the bilirubin in bile is metabolized in the small intestine by bacteria
and eliminated in feces why
-reason brown

7. Synthesis of bile salts

- used in the small intestine for the emulsification and absorption of lipids
8. Storage
- in addition to glycogen, the liver is a prime storage site for certain vitamins
(A, B12, D, E, and K) and minerals (iron and copper), which are released from
the liver when needed elsewhere in the body
 9. Phagocytosis
- stellate reticuloendothelial (Kupffer) cells of the liver phagocytize aged red
blood cells, white blood cells, and some bacteria.
10. Activation of vitamin D Calcitriol
-

- the skin, liver, and kidneys participate in synthesizing the active form of
vitamin D

c. Gallbladder
DUODENAL PAPILLA
- a pear-shaped sac that is located in a depression of the posterior surface of the liver
·
common
pancreatic
bileduct and
duct merges
- it is 7–10 cm (3–4 in.) long and typically hangs from the anterior inferior margin of the
·
where bileand pancreatic
released
liver
Juices are
- Functions:
BICARBONATE IONS 1. stores bile produced by the liver
·
alter pH of
stomach
chyme released
2. concentrates the bile by reabsorbing water and electrolytes
from
3. releases bile in the small intestines in response to hormones and fatty acids to
emulsify fats

VII. Small Intestines

- most digestion and absorption of nutrients occur in a long tube called the small intestine
- longest organ in the body which has an average of 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter; its length is
about 3 m (10 ft.)

- Functions:
1. Segmentations mix chyme with digestive juices and bring food into contact with the
mucosa for absorption; peristalsis propels chyme through the small intestine.
2. Completes the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids; begins and completes
the digestion of nucleic acids.
3. Absorbs about 90% of nutrients and water that pass through the digestive system.

- Subdivisions:
1. Duodenum
- shortest region (10 in.)
- receives bile from the liver and gallbladder via bile ducts
- receives enzymes from pancreas via main pancreatic duct
2. Jejunum
- is about 1 m (3 ft) long
- means “empty,” which is how it is found at death
 3. Illium
- longest region of the small intestine which measures about 2 m (6 ft)
- Ileocecal sphincter – a smooth muscle sphincter that joins the large intestines
& controls
- Structures: digested food
small to large intestine

1. Mucusa
- Absorptive cells – digest and absorb nutrients in small intestinal chime
- Goblet cells – secretes mucus
- Crypts of Lieberkühn – intestinal glands that secretes intestinal juices
- Paneth cells – secretes lysozymes (phagocytosis) for immune responses
-

- S cells, CCK cells, and K cells – enteroendocrince cells that secrete the hormones
secretin, cholecystokinin or CCK, and glucose dependent insulinotropic peptide
or GIP, respectively
2. Lamina propria
- Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) Immune protection
-

3. Submucosa
- Duodenal (Brunner’s) glands – secrete an alkaline mucus that helps neutralize
gastric acid in the chime
4. Special structures
- Circular folds - or plicae circulares
are folds of the mucosa and
submucosa which enhance
absorption by increasing surface
area and causing the chyme to
spiral, rather than move in a straight
line
- Villi – fingerlike projections of the
mucosa that are 0.5–1 mm long
which increases the surface area of
the epithelium available for
absorption and digestion and gives
the intestinal mucosa a velvety
appearance
&
- Microvilli – are projections of the
brush border

enzymes
·
finishdigestion
of carbs ,
,
proteins
apical (free) membrane of the
nucleic acid
absorptive cells which greatly
increases the surface area of the
plasma membrane enabling larger
amounts of digested nutrients to
diffuse into absorptive cells in a
given period

- Mechanical digestion
-when there
1. Segmentation – localized, mixing contractions that occur in portions of intestine
--
many
is

distended by a large volume of chime

- 2. Migrating motility complexes – peristalsis movement that pushes chyme forward along
a short stretch of small intestine before dying out (90-120 minutes)
- Chemical digestion
- chyme entering the small intestine contains partially digested carbohydrates,
proteins, and lipids
 - the completion of the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids is a collective
effort of pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal juice in the small intestine
- Absorption in the small intestines
- Absorption – passage of these digested nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract into
the blood or lymph
- occurs via diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and active transport
- about 90% of all absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine
- the other 10% occurs in the stomach and large intestine
- any undigested or unabsorbed material left in the small intestine passes on to the
large intestine

VIII. Large Intestine

- about 1.5 m (5 ft) long and 6.5 cm (2.5 in.) in diameter, extends from the ileum to the anus
- Functions:
1. Haustral churning, peristalsis, and mass peristalsis drive the contents of the colon into
the rectum.
2. Bacteria in the large intestine convert proteins to amino acids, break down amino
acids, and produce some B vitamins and vitamin K.
3. Absorbing some water, ions, and vitamins.
4. Forming feces.
5. Defecating (emptying the rectum)

- Subdivisions:
1. Cecum start absorption
- chyme
receives from ileum
has gut
occur ; bacterias
-
of water

- a small pouch about 6 cm (2.4 in.) long

- Appendix or vermiform appendix – a twisted, coiled tube, measuring about 8 cm
(3 in.) in length
water andelectrolyte absorption
2. Colon form &
-

-
store feces
peristalsis & mass movement

- a long tube that merges to the open end of the cecum

- regions: ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid
colon is

3. Rectum _simplecolumna
- the last 20 cm (8 in.) of the GI tract, lies anterior to the sacrum and coccyx
- serves as a temporary storage site for feces before they are eliminated from the
body and has minor role in reabsorbing remaining water
- has stretch receptors that detect the volume of feces accumulating within it.
These receptors send signals to the brain, which contributes to the sensation of
needing to defecate
- defecation is under voluntary control
- Defecation Reflex – when it is time to defecate, the rectum contracts, and the
anal sphincters (internal and external) relax to allow feces to pass through the
anus. The external anal sphincter is under voluntary control, meaning an
individual can control the timing and speed of bowel movements to some extent
2. Anal canal and anus
- Anal canal – terminal 2–3 cm (1 in.) of the rectum
- Anus – opening of the anal canal to the exterior which consists of internal anal
sphincter of smooth muscle (involuntary) and an external anal sphincter of
skeletal muscle (voluntary) which keeps the anus closed
 - Structures:
- no villi present
- contains columnar cells that take in water and electrolytes
- contains numerous goblet cells which secretes mucus that functions to lubricate the
stool

am

D ·
absorptive cell : wo
water
microvil ,

electrolytes

·
goblet cells
to lubricate f

-
> secrete mucus

Me

- Mechanical digestion
1. Gastroileal reflex – intensifies peristalsis in the ileum and forces any chyme into the
cecum rpushes
~ continues
-fills
contraction and relaxation Of LI

2. Haustral churning – haustra remain relaxed and become distended while they fill up.
When the distension reaches a certain point, the walls contract and squeeze the
contents into the next haustrum
3. Peristalsis – occurs at a slower rate (3–12 contractions per minute)
4. Mass peristalsis – a strong peristaltic wave that begins at about the middle of the
transverse colon and quickly drives the contents of the colon into the rectum. Usually
takes place three or four times a day, during or immediately after a meal.
- Chemical digestion
1. Bacteria-driven digestion
- bacteria ferment any remaining carbohydrates and release hydrogen, carbon
dioxide, and methane gases (flatus)
- convert any remaining proteins to amino acids and break down the amino acids
into simpler substances: indole, skatole, hydrogen sulfide, and fatty acids. Some of
the indole and skatole is eliminated in the feces and contributes to their odor; the
rest is absorbed and transported to the liver, where these compounds are
converted to less toxic compounds and excreted in the urine
- decompose bilirubin to simpler pigments, including stercobilin, which gives feces
their brown color
- Absorption and Feces formation
- chyme has remained in the large intestine 3–10 hours, it has become solid or
semisolid because of water absorption and is now called feces
 - feces consist of water, inorganic salts, sloughed-off epithelial cells from the mucosa
of the gastrointestinal tract, bacteria, products of bacterial decomposition,
unabsorbed digested materials, and indigestible parts of food
- about 100–200 mL is normally absorbed via osmosis

PHASES OF DIGESTION

Digestion is a complex process that involves the breakdown of food into smaller, absorbable
components. The process of digestion occurs in several phases, each with its specific functions and
mechanisms. The main phases of digestion are:

1. Ingestion
- first phase of digestion, where food is taken into the mouth and consumed
- act of eating involves biting, chewing, and swallowing the food, preparing it for further
breakdown in the digestive system
2. Mechanical Digestion
- begins in the mouth, where the teeth break down the food into smaller particles through
chewing and grinding
- - increases the surface area of the food, making it easier for enzymes to act upon it later in the
digestive process
3. Chemical Digestion
- starts in the mouth with the action of salivary amylase, an enzyme that begins to break down
carbohydrates into simpler sugars
- once food reaches the stomach, gastric juices, including hydrochloric acid and pepsin,
break down proteins into smaller peptides
- in the small intestine, bile from the liver and enzymes from the pancreas further break down
fats, carbohydrates, and proteins into absorbable molecules
4. Absorption
- the small intestine is the primary site of nutrient absorption
- walls of the small intestine are lined with tiny finger-like projections called villi and microvilli,

im which increase the surface area for efficient nutrient absorption

- nutrients, such as sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, are absorbed
through the intestinal lining into the bloodstream for distribution to the cells and tissues of the
body
5. Elimination
- after nutrients have been absorbed in the small intestine, the remaining indigestible and
unabsorbed materials, along with waste products and water, move into the large intestine
(colon)
- in the colon, water and electrolytes are reabsorbed, and the waste materials are compacted
to form feces
- feces are then stored in the rectum until they are eliminated from the body through the
process of defecation

NEURAL AND HORMONAL CONTROL OF DIGESTION

The process of digestion is under the control of both neural and hormonal mechanisms. These
controls work together to regulate the various stages of digestion and ensure the efficient breakdown
and absorption of nutrients. The key players in the neural and hormonal control of digestion are the
enteric nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and gastrointestinal hormones.
1. Enteric Nervous System (ENS) neural
-

- the "second brain" because it can function independently of the central nervous system
- It is a complex network of nerve cells that extends throughout the walls of the digestive
tract, from the esophagus to the anus
- responsible for coordinating and regulating local reflexes in response to the presence of
food and distension of the gut
- controls functions such as peristalsis (the rhythmic contraction of smooth muscles to propel
food), secretion of digestive enzymes and fluids, and blood flow to the digestive organs
- allows for quick and efficient responses to changes in the gut environment, ensuring that
digestion proceeds smoothly

2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

- controls involuntary functions, including those of the digestive system
- sympathetic nervous system – inhibits digestion which reduces the activity of the digestive
organs, slows peristalsis, and decreases secretion
- parasympathetic nervous system – enhances digestion which stimulates digestive activity,
increases peristalsis, and promotes secretion

3. Gastrointestinal Hormones
a) Gastrin
- produced in the stomach in response to the presence of food
- stimulates the release of gastric acid and pepsinogen, which aid in the digestion of
proteins
b) Cholecystokinin (CCK)
- secreted by the small intestine in response to the presence of fats and proteins
- stimulates the release of bile from the gallbladder and digestive enzymes from the
pancreas, promoting the digestion of fats and proteins
c) Secretin
- produced by the small intestine
- stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate-rich fluid, which helps neutralize the
acidic chyme from the stomach, creating a more favorable environment for enzyme
activity in the small intestine
d) Ghrelin
- known as the "hunger hormone"
- produced in the stomach and signals hunger to the brain, stimulating appetite and
food intake
e) Peptide YY (PYY)
- produced in the small intestine,
- released in response to food intake
- helps reduce appetite and slow down gastrointestinal motility
f) Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) and Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide
(GIP)
- produced in the small intestine
- stimulate insulin release from the pancreas in response to rising blood glucose levels,
promoting glucose uptake by cells and regulating blood sugar.
g) Motilin
- secreted by the small intestine during fasting
- stimulates migrating motor complexes, which are coordinated contractions that
sweep through the gut and help clean out residual undigested material
DIGESTIVE ENZYMES