GENERAL BIOLOGY

MODULE 7: EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY OF LIFE

Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain the principles of evolution and how natural selection drives genetic changes within
populations over time.
2. Differentiate between divergent and convergent evolution, and illustrate these processes
with examples from evolutionary biology.
3. Describe the process of speciation and identify the factors that lead to the formation of
new species.
4. Classify organisms using the Linnaean system, recognizing the hierarchical levels of
classification from domain to species.
5. Analyze ecological relationships and the flow of energy through ecosystems, including the
roles of producers, consumers, and decomposers.

A. PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION AND NATURAL SELECTION

Evolution
Biological evolution is the theory that organisms change over time, leading to morphological and
physiological differences from their ancestors. This ongoing process is driven by competition for
resources and occurs over millions of years. Evolution involves inherited modifications passed across
generations, leading to the emergence of new species. While it explains the diversity of life, not all
changes qualify as evolution—only those involving genetic inheritance. All living organisms share a
common ancestor, highlighting the interconnectedness of life through evolutionary history.

Divergent evolution occurs when two related species evolve different traits, often due to different
environmental pressures, leading to the development of distinct species. This process is often
represented in a phylogenetic tree, where species diverge from a common ancestor over time.
Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species develop similar traits or adaptations in
response to similar environmental challenges. Despite not sharing a recent common ancestor, these
species evolve similar solutions to the same ecological problem.

Fig 1. Divergent vs Convergent Evolution

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A phylogenetic tree visually represents
these evolutionary relationships, showing
how species have diverged from common
ancestors over time. By analyzing genetic
and morphological similarities, scientists
construct phylogenetic trees to trace
evolutionary lineages. These trees illustrate
the interconnectedness of all living
organisms and provide evidence for
shared ancestry, reinforcing the idea that
life on Earth has evolved through a
complex web of relationships.

Fig 2. Phylogenetic Tree

Another concept closely related to evolution is adaptation. Adaptation is the process by which
organisms develop traits or behaviors that enhance their survival and reproductive success in a specific
environment. These traits can be structural, physiological, or behavioral and arise through natural
selection over generations. Although similar, evolution and adaptation possess key differences, which
are summarized in the table below:

Table 1. Evolution vs Adaptation

Feature Evolution Adaptation
Definition A gradual change in the genetic composition A trait or behavior that enhances an
of populations over generations, leading to organism’s survival and reproduction in its
new species. environment.
Time Scale Long-term (millions of years). Short-term or long-term (within a few
generations).
Inheritance Passed down through genetic changes over Can be inherited if genetic; behavioral
multiple generations. adaptations may not always be genetic.
Scope Affects populations and species. Affects individuals or populations.
Mechanism Driven by natural selection, genetic drift, Driven by environmental pressures requiring
mutation, and gene flow. an immediate response.
Example The evolution of whales from land-dwelling Arctic foxes developing thicker fur in colder
ancestors. environments.

Speciation
Speciation is the process by which new species arise from existing ones, driven by evolutionary
mechanisms such as natural selection, genetic drift, and mutations. It occurs when populations of a
species become reproductively isolated due to geographic, behavioral, temporal, or genetic barriers.
Over time, these isolated populations accumulate differences that prevent them from interbreeding,
resulting in the formation of distinct species. Speciation can be classified into different types, including
allopatric speciation, where physical barriers like mountains or rivers separate populations, and
sympatric speciation, where species diverge without geographical separation, often due to
ecological or behavioral differences. This process is fundamental to biodiversity and explains the vast
variety of life forms on Earth.

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Speciation occurs due to several factors:
• Natural Selection: drives evolutionary change by favoring individuals with beneficial traits,
leading to species diversity. Variations occur through mutations, genetic recombination during
reproduction, and gene flow between populations. These variations provide the raw material
for natural selection. Over time, advantageous traits become more prevalent in a population.
Rapid environmental changes can cause extinction if species fail to adapt. Human activities
today accelerate extinction rates beyond historical norms.
• Genetic Drift: This refers to changes in allele frequencies due to random sampling errors in
reproduction. While it leads to evolution, it may not directly cause speciation, as it does not
necessarily lead to the formation of new species.
• Migration: When a group of organisms migrates to a new area, they may develop distinct
characteristics, leading to geographical isolation. Over time, this isolation can result in
speciation.
• Chromosomal Mutations: Mutations in chromosomes can create reproductive isolation, and
when these mutations are passed down, they can contribute to the formation of new species.
• Natural Causes: Environmental factors such as rivers or mountain ranges can physically separate
populations, leading to geographical isolation and eventually reproductive isolation, which
promotes speciation.
• Reduction of Gene Flow: Speciation can also occur without physical barriers if gene flow is
reduced over a broad range, especially when selective mechanisms like genetic drift alter gene
frequencies, leading to speciation.

Fig 3. Types of Speciation

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B. CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE
Humans have a natural tendency to organize information into meaningful categories. This practice
extends to the classification of living organisms, a field of biology known as taxonomy. Taxonomy is the
study of relationships between organisms and their formal classification based on similarities and
differences. Just as families are structured based on biological relationships—where siblings share the
closest common ancestor (a parent), while cousins share a more distant ancestor (a grandparent)—
organisms are classified according to their evolutionary history. The closer the common ancestor, the
more closely related the species are.

Early classification systems were based primarily on physical characteristics, but modern taxonomy
incorporates genetic relationships to determine evolutionary links. For example, humans are classified
as mammals and are more closely related to apes than to dogs due to shared features such as hand
structure and facial characteristics. Understanding these relationships helps scientists trace the lineage
of species and study evolutionary mechanisms that shape biodiversity. Despite nearly 2 million species
being formally described, this number represents only a fraction of the total species believed to exist
on Earth.

The Hierarchical System of Classification

In 1753, Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus introduced a standardized system for classifying and naming
organisms. This Linnaean system is hierarchical, meaning that organisms are grouped in nested levels,
with broader categories containing more species and narrower categories being more specific. The
highest level of classification is the domain, which includes all known life forms.

a. Domain
The domain is the highest and broadest level of classification. All living organisms are grouped into
three domains based on fundamental differences in cell structure and genetics.
1. Bacteria – Single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus (prokaryotic). They have a simpler cellular
structure with a circular DNA genome located in the nucleoid region. The genetic material of
bacteria is often organized into plasmids, and they reproduce asexually through binary fission.

Fig 4. Binary Fission

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 2. Archaea – Like bacteria, archaea are single-celled and lack a nucleus (prokaryotic). However,
their genetic material and cellular machinery are more similar to eukaryotes than to bacteria.
Archaea have unique cell membrane lipids and enzymes that allow them to thrive in extreme
environments such as hot springs and deep-sea vents. Their genetic code and transcriptional
machinery differ significantly from those of bacteria, with some genes and processes resembling
those in eukaryotes (e.g., Halobacterium).
3. Eukarya – Organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, such as
mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum. Eukaryotic cells are more complex and their
genetic material is organized into linear chromosomes housed within the nucleus. Eukarya
includes a vast array of organisms, including animals, plants, fungi, and protists. These organisms
typically reproduce sexually or asexually, and genetic recombination occurs during sexual
reproduction. The genetic diversity within eukaryotes is considerable, with mechanisms such as
meiosis and genetic recombination playing crucial roles in inheritance (e.g., humans, trees,
mushrooms, and amoebas).

Fig 5. Domains of Life

b. Kingdom
A kingdom is a major taxonomic category that groups together organisms sharing fundamental
characteristics such as cell structure, method of nutrition, and reproductive processes. It is one of the
highest levels of biological classification, serving to organize life forms into broad categories based on
shared traits. For example, organisms in the Kingdom Bacteria are prokaryotic and unicellular, while
those in the Kingdom Animalia are multicellular and heterotrophic. Kingdoms help scientists study the
diversity of life by categorizing organisms with similar biological features, making it easier to understand
their evolutionary relationships and ecological roles.
1. Protista – Mostly single-celled organisms, but some are multicellular. Includes algae, amoebas,
and slime molds. Some are plant-like (photosynthetic), while others are animal-like (motile and
heterotrophic).

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 2. Fungi – Includes molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. They absorb nutrients from dead or decaying
matter (decomposers) and do not photosynthesize.
3. Plantae – Multicellular, autotrophic organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis
(e.g., trees, flowers, and grasses).
4. Animalia – Multicellular, heterotrophic organisms that consume other organisms for energy (e.g.,
humans, dogs, and fish).

c. Phylum
The phylum groups organisms within a kingdom based on major body plans and structural features.
Here are examples from the Animalia kingdom:
• Chordata – Animals with a notochord (a flexible rod in their back), which includes mammals,
birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish.
• Arthropoda – Includes insects, spiders, and crabs, all having exoskeletons and jointed legs.
• Mollusca – Soft-bodied animals, often with shells, such as snails, clams, and squids.
For plants, a phylum is often referred to as a division, such as Bryophyta (mosses) and Magnoliophyta
(flowering plants).

d. Class
The class further divides organisms within a phylum based on even more specific traits.
For example, in Phylum Chordata:
• Mammalia – Warm-blooded animals with hair/fur and mammary glands (e.g., humans, dogs,
whales).
• Aves – Birds with feathers, beaks, and hollow bones (e.g., eagles, pigeons, penguins).
• Reptilia – Cold-blooded vertebrates with scales, such as snakes, lizards, and turtles.
For plants, Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons) and Liliopsida (monocotyledons) are examples of classes.

e. Order
The order is a more specific classification that groups related organisms within a class.
For example, in Class Mammalia:
• Primates – Includes humans, monkeys, and apes, characterized by forward-facing eyes and
grasping hands.
• Carnivora – Meat-eating mammals such as lions, tigers, and bears, with sharp teeth and claws.
• Rodentia – Includes mice, rats, and squirrels, known for their continuously growing incisors.
For plants, Rosales (includes roses and apples) and Poales (includes grasses and bamboo) are
examples of orders.

f. Family
The family groups organisms that share even more closely related features, often reflecting shared
evolutionary ancestry. It is a higher-level taxonomic unit within an order that includes organisms with
significant similarities in their morphology, behavior, and ecological roles.
For example, in Order Carnivora:
• Felidae – Includes cats, lions, and tigers, all with retractable claws and sharp teeth for hunting.
• Canidae – Includes dogs, wolves, and foxes, known for their keen sense of smell and pack
behavior.
For plants, Rosaceae (rose family) and Fabaceae (pea family) are examples of families.

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 g. Genus
The genus groups species that are structurally similar and closely related. Organisms within the same
genus share a greater number of characteristics, indicating a recent common ancestor. The genus
name is always capitalized and italicized or underlined in scientific writing.
For example, in Family Felidae:
• Panthera – Includes large cats such as lions (Panthera leo) and tigers (Panthera tigris).
• Felis – Includes smaller cats such as the domestic cat (Felis catus).
For plants, the Malus genus includes apple trees (Malus domestica), while Quercus includes oak trees
(Quercus robur).

h. Species
The species is the most specific level of classification, representing a group of organisms that are
capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Members of the same species share genetic
similarities that enable them to reproduce together and maintain the integrity of their species.
For example:
The domestic cat (Felis catus) is a distinct species within the Felis genus, which also includes wildcats.
Domestic cats can interbreed with other wild members of the Felis genus, such as the wildcat (Felis
silvestris), producing fertile offspring. However, due to domestication and specific genetic adaptations,
domestic cats are considered a separate species because they have developed distinct behavior
patterns, such as their reliance on humans for food and shelter, and their domesticated traits that set
them apart from their wild relatives.

Table 2. Basis of classification from Domain to Species

Level of Basis of Classification Example
Classification
Domain The broadest level, based on differences in Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya.
cell type (prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic) and
genetic features.
Kingdom Based on fundamental traits such as cell Animalia (multicellular, heterotrophic
structure, nutrition, and reproduction. organisms), Plantae (multicellular,
autotrophic organisms).
Phylum Based on major body plans, structure, and Chordata (vertebrates, e.g., humans,
other key anatomical features. fish, birds), Arthropoda (insects,
arachnids).
➢ Subphylum ➢ More specific grouping within a ➢ Vertebrata (animals with
phylum, based on certain body backbones, e.g., humans, dogs,
features like the presence of a fish).
backbone.
Class Based on more specific characteristics, often Mammalia (warm-blooded, hair, live
involving complex traits such as body births), Aves (feathers, beaks).
systems.
Order Grouping based on even more specific Carnivora (meat-eaters, e.g., lions and
features, often related to behavior, diet, or tigers), Primates (e.g., humans,
reproductive traits. monkeys).
Family Based on closer genetic relationships and Felidae (cats, e.g., lions and tigers),
shared specific features. Canidae (dogs, wolves, foxes).
Genus Groups species that are structurally similar Panthera (lions, tigers), Felis (domestic
and closely related. cats).
Species The most specific classification, based on Homo sapiens (humans), Canis lupus
the ability to interbreed and produce fertile (gray wolf), Felis catus (domestic cat).
offspring.

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 Fig 6. Taxonomic
Nomenclature

Binomial Nomenclature
Nomenclature is the system of assigning names to objects, concepts, or organisms based on
established rules and conventions. In biology, nomenclature refers specifically to the standardized
naming of organisms to ensure clarity and consistency in classification.
Binomial nomenclature is a standardized system for naming organisms using two Latinized names: the
genus and the species (e.g., Homo sapiens for humans). This system, developed by Carl Linnaeus, is
crucial for biological classification and communication.
Importance of binomial nomenclature:

1. Universal Standardization – Scientific names are recognized worldwide, eliminating confusion

caused by common names that vary across languages and regions.
2. Clarity and Precision – Each species has a unique name, avoiding ambiguity when referring to
organisms, especially those with similar common names (e.g., multiple species of "blackbirds").
3. Indicates Relationships – The system reflects evolutionary relationships, grouping organisms that
share common ancestry (e.g., Panthera leo and Panthera tigris both belong to the Panthera
genus, indicating a close relationship).
4. Simplifies Scientific Communication – Scientists across different disciplines can easily reference
organisms without misinterpretation, essential in research, medicine, and conservation.
5. Helps in Conservation and Identification – Accurately identifying species is vital for biodiversity
conservation, environmental policies, and protecting endangered species.

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C. ECOLOGY
Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between organisms and their environment,
encompassing both biotic and abiotic components. The term was first introduced by Ernst Haeckel in
1869, derived from Greek words meaning "house" and "study." Ecology examines how organisms
interact with each other and their surroundings, focusing on the distribution and abundance of
species. It has evolved from a basic science to an applied discipline, integrating knowledge from
various fields such as physiology, genetics, geology, and meteorology. Modern ecology is
increasingly experimental and relies on mathematical modeling to understand complex ecological
systems, making it a truly interdisciplinary science.

The Environment
Organisms and their environments are dynamic and interconnected. The environment includes both
biotic and abiotic factors that influence living organisms. Biotic factors refer to all living components of
an ecosystem, such as plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, as well as interactions like predation,
competition, and symbiosis. Abiotic factors are the non-living components that affect organisms,
including temperature, sunlight, water availability, and soil conditions. Soil, as a key component of the
physical environment, is a biologically active matrix formed through weathering. It can be classified as
residual (formed in place) or transported (moved by natural forces like wind or water).

Levels of Biological Organization

Ecology operates across various levels of biological organization, from individual organisms to the
entire biosphere. Each level represents a different scale of ecological study and encompasses
interactions at different complexities.
These levels are:
• Organism: The individual living entity that interacts with its environment. Organisms adapt to their
environment through physiological, behavioral, and morphological traits. Their survival and
reproduction depend on their ability to obtain resources and cope with environmental stresses.
• Population: A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in a specific area.
The study of population ecology focuses on the size, density, age structure, and genetic diversity
of populations, as well as the factors that influence their growth and regulation.
• Community: A community consists of multiple populations of different species interacting in a
given area. In community ecology, researchers study the interactions between species, such as
competition, predation, and symbiosis, and how these interactions affect species diversity,
community structure, and stability.
• Ecosystem: An ecosystem includes all living organisms (biotic components) in a particular area,
as well as the non-living (abiotic) factors such as water, soil, and climate. Ecosystem ecology
examines the flow of energy and cycling of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic
components. Energy flows through ecosystems in food chains, while nutrients are recycled by
decomposers.
• Biome: A biome is a large, regional ecosystem characterized by specific climatic conditions and
dominant plant life. Examples of biomes include deserts, tropical rainforests, grasslands, tundras,
and aquatic biomes (marine and freshwater). Each biome supports distinct communities of
organisms adapted to its environment.
• Biosphere: The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It encompasses all living organisms
on Earth and their interactions with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. The
biosphere is influenced by various natural and human-driven processes that affect climate,
biodiversity, and the sustainability of ecosystems.

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 Fig 7. Levels of
organization in
ecology from atom to
biosphere.

Food Chain and Energy Flow

Energy flows through an ecosystem via a food chain, a sequence of organisms where each is a
source of energy for the next. The levels of the food chain are as follows:
• Producers (Autotrophs) – Organisms, such as plants and algae, that produce their own food
through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
• Primary Consumers (Herbivores) – Animals that feed on producers (e.g., deer, rabbits,
caterpillars).
• Secondary Consumers (Carnivores/Omnivores) – Animals that consume herbivores (e.g., foxes,
frogs, small fish).
• Tertiary Consumers – Predators that feed on secondary consumers (e.g., hawks, large fish,
snakes).
• Decomposers– Organisms that break down dead matter, returning nutrients to the
environment.

Table 3. Comparison of Detritivores and Saprotrophs in Decomposition

Category Detritivores Saprotrophs
Definition Organisms that ingest and digest Organisms that decompose organic
dead organic matter internally. matter externally by secreting enzymes.
Mode of Physical fragmentation and Chemical breakdown of organic matter
Decomposition ingestion of decaying material. outside their bodies.
Digestion Internal digestion (consume and External digestion (secrete enzymes to
Process break down inside their bodies). break down matter before absorption).
Examples Earthworms, millipedes, crabs, dung Fungi (mushrooms, molds), bacteria.
beetles.
Role in Increases surface area of organic Completes breakdown of organic
Ecosystem matter for further decomposition. material, releasing nutrients into the
environment.
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A food web represents the interconnected food chains within an ecosystem, showing the complex
feeding relationships among organisms.

Fig 8. Food Chain vs Food Web

Ecological Interactions
This refers to the relationships between different organisms or between organisms and their
environment within an ecosystem. These interactions can have various outcomes, ranging from
beneficial to harmful, and they play a crucial role in shaping the structure, function, and dynamics of
ecosystems. These interactions include processes like predation, competition, mutualism,
commensalism, parasitism, and decomposition, which influence species survival, behavior, and
population control.

Table 4. Types of ecological interactions

Interaction Description Example
Predation One organism (predator) hunts and consumes another A lion hunting a zebra.
(prey), helping regulate population sizes.
Competition Organisms compete for limited resources like food, water, Two bird species competing
or shelter; can be intraspecific (within species) or for nesting sites.
interspecific (between species).
Mutualism A symbiotic relationship where both species benefit. Bees pollinating flowers while
obtaining nectar.
Commensalism One species benefits while the other is neither harmed nor Barnacles attaching to a
helped. whale for transportation.
Parasitism One organism (parasite) benefits at the expense of another Tapeworms absorbing
(host). nutrients from a human
intestine.
Decomposition Decomposers break down organic matter, recycling Fungi breaking down dead
nutrients and maintaining ecosystem health. plants.

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Biological Accumulation
Biological accumulation refers to the gradual increase in the concentration of substances, such as
pollutants or toxins, within an organism over time. These substances are often not metabolized or
excreted and can accumulate in the body, leading to potentially harmful effects. An example of
biological accumulation is biomagnification, where toxins such as pesticides accumulate in higher
concentrations at successive trophic levels in a food chain. For instance, apex predators (such as
eagles or sharks) can accumulate high levels of toxins because they consume multiple prey
organisms that each contain smaller amounts of the toxin.

Fig 9. Bioaccumulation vs. Biomagnification

Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the process by which ecosystems change and develop over time. It occurs
in two main types:
• Primary Succession – Occurs in an area where no soil exists, such as after a volcanic eruption
or glacier retreat. It begins with pioneer species (like lichens and mosses) that help form soil
over time, allowing other species to gradually colonize the area.
• Secondary Succession – Occurs in areas where a disturbance, such as a forest fire or
agricultural abandonment, has cleared an ecosystem but left the soil intact. Secondary
succession typically occurs more quickly than primary succession, as soil and some plant life
remain to support regrowth.

Over time, both primary and secondary succession lead to the establishment of a climax community,
a stable and mature ecosystem that remains relatively unchanged until the next disturbance.

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 Fig 10. Ecological Succession

Fig 11. Role of a disturbance in an ecological succession

Reference
Campbell, N. A., Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Jackson, R. B. (2020).
Biology (12th ed.). Pearson.
Evolution 101. (2023, March 6). Understanding Evolution. Retrieved from
[Link]
National Geographic Society. (2019). Ecology: The study of interactions among organisms and their
environment. [Link]
Ricklefs, R. E. (2008). The economy of nature (6th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
Smith, J., & Green, A. B. (2010). Natural selection and its role in speciation: A review. Journal of Evolutionary
Biology, 23(5), 982-996. [Link]

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