Module : 5 Global Warming

Definition

Global warming refers to the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth’s
atmosphere and oceans due to the increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs)
resulting from human activities.

It is one of the major components of climate change.

Global warming = Earth getting hotter because of trapped heat from greenhouse gases.

The Greenhouse Effect (The Basic Mechanism)

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that keeps Earth’s temperature suitable for life.
Without it, the Earth’s average temperature would be about –18°C instead of the current
+15°C.

Process:

1. The Sun’s rays reach the Earth → some energy is absorbed by land and oceans.
2. The Earth’s surface radiates heat back toward space as infrared radiation.
3. Certain gases in the atmosphere (greenhouse gases) trap part of this heat, preventing it
from escaping.
4. This trapped heat keeps the Earth warm — like how glass traps heat in a greenhouse.

Main Greenhouse Gases:

Approximate
Gas Source
Contribution
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) Fossil fuel burning, deforestation ~60%
Agriculture (rice paddies, livestock),
Methane (CH₄) ~20%
landfills
Nitrous oxide (N₂O) Fertilizers, industrial processes ~6%
Chlorofluorocarbons
Refrigerants, aerosols ~14%
(CFCs)
Problem:
Human activities are increasing these gases beyond natural levels, enhancing the greenhouse
effect → “enhanced greenhouse effect.”

Indicators of Global Warming

Global warming indicators are scientific measurements and observations that provide
evidence of the Earth's increasing temperature and changing climate patterns.
They are mainly divided into atmospheric, oceanic, cryosphere, and biological indicators.

🔹 1. Atmospheric Indicators

These show changes occurring in the air and temperature patterns of the Earth.

Indicator Description / Evidence

Increase in Global Average surface temperature of Earth has risen by about 1.2°C
Surface Temperature since pre-industrial times (1850–1900).

Higher Atmospheric CO₂ CO₂ concentration has increased from 280 ppm (pre-industrial) to
Levels over 420 ppm (2025) — measured at Mauna Loa Observatory.

Increase in Other Rise in methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and fluorinated gases
Greenhouse Gases due to human activities.

More Frequent Heat

Number and intensity of heat waves are rising globally.
Waves

Changes in Precipitation Heavier rainfall in some regions, droughts in others — indicating

Patterns disturbed hydrological cycles.

Reduction in Snow Cover

Snow melts earlier in the year in the Northern Hemisphere.
Duration

🔹 2. Oceanic Indicators

Oceans absorb most of the extra heat trapped by greenhouse gases, showing clear warming
trends.

Indicator Description / Evidence

Rising Sea Surface

Average ocean temperature has increased, especially near the surface.
Temperature

Global mean sea level has risen by about 20–25 cm over the last
Sea Level Rise
century due to melting ice and thermal expansion of seawater.

Ocean Heat Content More than 90% of excess heat from global warming is absorbed by
Increase oceans.
 Indicator Description / Evidence

Increased CO₂ forms carbonic acid in seawater, lowering pH —

Ocean Acidification
harmful to coral reefs and shellfish.

Coral Bleaching Warmer oceans stress corals, causing them to expel algae and lose
Events color.

🔹 3. Cryospheric Indicators (Ice and Snow)

Changes in ice-covered regions are among the clearest signs of global warming.

Indicator Description / Evidence

Most mountain glaciers (Himalayas, Alps, Andes) are shrinking

Glacial Retreat
rapidly.

The area and thickness of Arctic sea ice are decreasing —

Arctic Sea Ice Decline
lowest levels recorded in recent decades.

Greenland and Antarctic Ice

Large ice masses are melting, contributing to sea level rise.
Sheet Loss

Snow-covered areas in the Northern Hemisphere are reducing in

Decreasing Snow Cover
both area and duration.

Frozen ground (permafrost) in Arctic regions is thawing,

Permafrost Thawing
releasing stored methane (CH₄).

🔹 4. Biological and Ecological Indicators

Living organisms and ecosystems respond visibly to global temperature changes.

Indicator Description / Evidence

Many species are moving toward poles or higher altitudes to

Shifts in Species Distribution
escape heat.

Changes in Migration and Birds, fish, and insects are altering seasonal migration and
Breeding Patterns breeding times.

Coral bleaching and ecosystem collapse due to warm, acidic

Coral Reef Degradation
waters.

Forest Fires and Pest Warmer, drier climates increase wildfires and pest
Outbreaks infestations (e.g., bark beetles).

Reduced Agricultural Crops sensitive to temperature and rainfall (like wheat, rice)
 Indicator Description / Evidence

Productivity show declining yields in some regions.

🔹 5. Socio-Economic Indicators

Global warming affects human systems too.

Indicator Description / Evidence

Increased Heat-Related Rising temperatures cause heat strokes, dehydration, and other
Illnesses health problems.

Water Scarcity and

Changing rainfall reduces freshwater availability.
Droughts

More Extreme Weather

Increase in floods, cyclones, droughts, and wildfires worldwide.
Events

People displaced due to rising sea levels and environmental

Climate Refugees
stress.

Factors Affecting Global Warming (Detailed Explanation)

Global warming is the long-term increase in Earth’s average surface temperature caused
primarily by human-induced greenhouse gas emissions, and secondarily by natural climatic
variations.
These factors influence the Earth’s energy balance — the equilibrium between incoming
solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation.

🔹 1. Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Concentration

Greenhouse gases trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere and prevent it from escaping into space
— a process known as the Greenhouse Effect.
While this effect is natural and essential for maintaining life, excessive concentrations due to
human activity enhance it, leading to global warming.

Major Greenhouse Gases and Their Sources

Global Warming Potential

Gas Major Sources
(Compared to CO₂ = 1)
Burning of fossil fuels,
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) 1
deforestation, cement production
 Global Warming Potential
Gas Major Sources
(Compared to CO₂ = 1)
Livestock digestion, rice paddies,
Methane (CH₄) 25
landfills, natural gas leaks
Fertilizer use, soil management,
Nitrous oxide (N₂O) 298
biomass burning
Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerants, aerosols (synthetic
12,000+
(CFCs) gases)

Effect

These gases absorb and re-emit infrared radiation, warming the atmosphere and surface.
The higher their concentration, the stronger the greenhouse effect, leading to increased global
temperatures.

🔹 2. Deforestation and Land Use Changes

Explanation

 Forests act as carbon sinks — they absorb CO₂ through photosynthesis.

 When trees are cut, burned, or degraded, stored carbon is released back into the
atmosphere.
 Large-scale deforestation reduces the Earth’s capacity to absorb CO₂.

Additional Effects

 Land-use changes (like converting forests to agriculture or urban land) alter surface
albedo — reflective properties of the Earth.
o Dark surfaces (soil, asphalt) absorb more heat.
o Bright surfaces (snow, vegetation) reflect sunlight.

Result

Less vegetation → less CO₂ absorption → increased atmospheric CO₂ → enhanced

greenhouse effect → global warming.

🔹 3. Burning of Fossil Fuels

 Coal, oil, and natural gas are burned for electricity generation, transportation, and
industrial processes.
 These activities release massive amounts of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and
nitrogen oxides.

Examples

 Power plants
 Vehicles and aircraft
 Industrial furnaces and manufacturing processes
Result

Continuous fossil fuel combustion has led to a sharp rise in CO₂ levels from 280 ppm (pre-
industrial) to over 420 ppm (2025) — the primary driver of global warming.

🔹 4. Industrialization

 Industrial activities emit GHGs directly through fuel combustion and indirectly
through electricity use.
 Factories release CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, and fluorinated gases.
 Certain industrial products (e.g., cement, steel, and chemicals) generate CO₂ during
chemical reactions.

Impact

 Industrial growth increases global energy demand.

 Emissions of aerosols and particulates may temporarily reflect sunlight, but black
carbon (soot) absorbs heat and accelerates warming.

🔹 5. Agricultural Activities

Agriculture contributes significantly to methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions.

Source Gas Emitted Mechanism

Livestock (cattle, sheep) Methane (CH₄) Enteric fermentation (digestion)
Rice paddies Methane (CH₄) Anaerobic decomposition in flooded fields
Fertilizers Nitrous oxide (N₂O) Microbial nitrification and denitrification
Burning crop residue CO₂, CH₄, N₂O Biomass combustion

Effect

Agricultural expansion, soil degradation, and chemical fertilizer use increase GHG emissions,
contributing to warming.

🔹 6. Population Growth and Urbanization

 More people → more energy consumption → more emissions.

 Urban areas experience the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, where temperatures are
higher due to:
o Concrete and asphalt absorbing heat
o Reduced vegetation
o Waste heat from vehicles and buildings
Impact

Urbanization amplifies local warming and indirectly contributes to global warming through
higher electricity demand and pollution.

🔹 7. Aerosols and Atmospheric Particulates

Explanation

Aerosols (tiny solid or liquid particles in the atmosphere) can cool or warm the planet
depending on their composition.

Type Example Effect

Reflective aerosols Sulfate particles Reflect sunlight → cooling effect
Absorbing aerosols Black carbon (soot) Absorb sunlight → warming effect

Result

While some aerosols temporarily offset warming, black carbon and industrial particulates still
increase net heat absorption in the atmosphere.

🔹 8. Volcanic Activity (Natural Factor)

Volcanoes emit CO₂, ash, and sulfur compounds.

 Short-term effect: Sulfate aerosols block sunlight → temporary cooling.

 Long-term effect: Emitted CO₂ contributes to the greenhouse gas buildup.

Example

Mount Pinatubo eruption (1991) cooled Earth for about two years, but its CO₂ contribution
remains in the atmosphere.

🔹 9. Solar Radiation Variability (Natural Factor)

The Sun’s energy output changes slightly due to sunspot cycles (about every 11 years).

 When solar activity increases, more energy reaches Earth.

 However, since the mid-20th century, solar variations have been minor compared to
human-driven GHG emissions.

Conclusion

Solar changes explain natural climate variability, but cannot account for rapid recent
warming.

🔹 10. Feedback Mchanisms

Feedback processes either amplify (positive feedback) or reduce (negative feedback) global
warming.

Effect on
Feedback Type Process
Warming
Ice–Albedo Ice melts → darker surface absorbs more heat →
Amplifies
Feedback more melting
Water Vapor Warmer air holds more water vapor → traps more
Amplifies
Feedback heat
Thawing releases methane → increases greenhouse
Permafrost Feedback Amplifies
effect
Cloud Feedback Some clouds cool (reflect), others warm (trap heat) Mixed

Effects of Global Warming

Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth’s average surface temperature due
to excessive accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
Its effects are global, complex, and interconnected, influencing climate systems, ecosystems,
human health, and the economy.

🔹 1. Environmental Effects

These are the most visible and scientifically documented impacts of global warming on the
natural environment.

a) Rise in Global Temperature

 Earth’s surface temperature has increased by about 1.2°C since pre-industrial times
(1850–1900).
 This increase intensifies heat waves, wildfires, and evaporation rates.

📌 Example: The 2023–2024 period recorded the hottest global average temperature in
modern history.

b) Melting of Glaciers and Polar Ice Caps

 Higher temperatures cause rapid melting of glaciers, sea ice, and ice sheets in the
Arctic, Antarctica, and Himalayas.
 Ice loss reduces albedo (reflectivity), causing more heat absorption → further
warming (positive feedback).

📌 Example: Arctic sea ice has declined by over 40% since 1979.

c) Rising Sea Levels

 Due to:
 1. Thermal expansion – warm water expands in volume.
2. Melting of land ice – adds freshwater to oceans.
 Global sea level has risen by about 20–25 cm in the last century, and may rise up to 1
meter by 2100.

📌 Consequence: Flooding of coastal areas, loss of islands, and saltwater intrusion into
freshwater.

d) Ocean Warming and Acidification

 Oceans absorb over 90% of the excess heat from global warming.
 CO₂ dissolves in seawater forming carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) → decreases ocean pH.

📉 Effect: Coral bleaching, death of marine organisms (e.g., shellfish), and disturbed food
chains.

e) Extreme Weather Events

 Global warming increases the frequency and intensity of:

o Heat waves
o Droughts
o Floods
o Cyclones
o Wildfires

📌 Example: Intense monsoons in South Asia, severe droughts in Africa, and hurricanes in the
Atlantic are all linked to climate change.

🔹 2. Ecological and Biodiversity Effects

a) Habitat Loss

 Melting ice, desertification, and deforestation reduce habitats for many species.
 Forests, wetlands, and coral reefs are particularly vulnerable.

📉 Effect: Biodiversity loss and extinction of species unable to adapt or migrate.

b) Shifts in Species Distribution

 Many species are migrating toward the poles or higher altitudes seeking cooler
temperatures.
 This disturbs ecosystem balance and food webs.

📌 Example: Polar bears, snow leopards, and Arctic foxes are losing their habitats due to
shrinking ice cover.

c) Coral Bleaching and Ocean Ecosystem Collapse

 Rising sea temperatures cause corals to expel symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) →

bleaching and death.
  Coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots; their loss impacts fish populations and coastal
livelihoods.

d) Increased Forest Fires and Pest Outbreaks

 Higher temperatures and prolonged dry periods promote wildfires.

 Warmer climates also support pests and pathogens, damaging forests and crops.

📌 Example: Bark beetle infestations in North America have destroyed millions of hectares of
pine forests.

🔹 3. Economic Effects

Global warming has serious implications for agriculture, industry, and infrastructure.

a) Impact on Agriculture

 Heat stress and altered rainfall reduce crop yield and quality.
 Droughts and floods damage farmlands, leading to food insecurity.
 Pests and diseases thrive in warmer climates, harming crops.

📌 Example: Wheat and rice yields in India and Africa have shown decline trends under
temperature rise.

b) Impact on Water Resources

 Shrinking glaciers and changing rainfall affect river flow and groundwater recharge.
 Regions dependent on snowmelt (e.g., Himalayas) may face seasonal water shortages.

📌 Example: The Ganges and Indus basins are vulnerable to both floods and droughts due to
glacier melt variability.

c) Impact on Energy Sector

 Higher temperatures increase electricity demand for cooling, straining power systems.
 Hydropower generation is affected by changing rainfall and snowmelt.

d) Infrastructure Damage

Flooding, storms, and sea-level rise damage roads, bridges, ports, and coastal cities.

 Developing nations face greater losses due to lack of climate-resilient infrastructure.

🔹 4. Social and Health Effects

a) Human Health Impacts

 Heat-related illnesses: Heat stroke, dehydration, and cardiovascular issues.

 Spread of vector-borne diseases: Warmer climates expand habitats of mosquitoes
(malaria, dengue, chikungunya).
  Food and water contamination: Floods and droughts reduce hygiene and nutrition
levels.

📌 Example: WHO predicts 250,000 additional deaths annually (2030–2050) due to heat
stress, malnutrition, and disease.

b) Migration and Climate Refugees

 Rising sea levels and desertification displace people from homes.

 Creates “climate refugees”, especially in low-lying countries (Bangladesh, Maldives,
Pacific Islands).

c) Social Conflicts and Inequality

 Competition for water, food, and land increases social tension and migration pressure.
 Poor and developing nations are disproportionately affected, though they contribute
least to emissions.

🔹 5. Political and Global Effects

a) International Tensions

 Climate change impacts can fuel disputes over resources, borders, and migration.

b) Economic Burden

 Nations spend billions on disaster recovery and adaptation strategies.

 Affects GDP growth, trade, and development priorities.

c) Policy and Global Cooperation

 Global warming has led to major international frameworks like:

o UNFCCC (1992)
o Kyoto Protocol (1997)
o Paris Agreement (2015) – aims to limit warming to below 2°C.

🌎 6. Feedback Effects (Amplifying Consequences)

Global warming triggers feedback loops that intensify its own effects:

Feedback Mechanism Effect

Ice–Albedo Feedback Ice melts → darker surface absorbs more heat → more melting
More heat → more evaporation → more water vapor → more
Water Vapor Feedback
trapping of heat
Permafrost Thaw Thawing permafrost releases methane → stronger greenhouse
Feedback effect
These feedbacks make warming self-reinforcing and difficult to reverse.

Global Climate Change – Indicators

Global climate change indicators are measurable physical or biological signals that show how
the Earth’s climate is changing over time. These indicators are monitored by organizations
such as IPCC, NASA, NOAA, WMO, and national climate services. They provide evidence
of long-term climate trends caused mainly by anthropogenic (human-made) greenhouse gas
emissions.

These indicators can be grouped into the following categories:

1. Atmospheric Indicators

(a) Rising Greenhouse Gas Concentrations

 CO₂ levels have crossed 420 ppm (parts per million)—the highest in over 3 million
years.
 Methane (CH₄) and Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) levels are also increasing.
 These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect.
Significance: Direct driver of global warming.

(b) Global Temperature Rise

 Earth's average surface temperature has increased by about 1.1–1.2°C since the pre-
industrial era (1850–1900).
 The last decade has been the warmest on record.
 Warming is stronger over land than oceans.

Effects: Heatwaves, extreme weather, crop stress, human discomfort.

(c) Increased Frequency of Heatwaves and Extreme Weather

 More frequent and intense heatwaves, droughts, intense rainfall, cyclones, and
wildfires.
 Warmer atmosphere holds more moisture → heavy rainfall events.

Significance: Major socioeconomic and ecological impacts.

2. Oceanic Indicators

(a) Ocean Warming

 Over 90% of excess heat from global warming is absorbed by oceans.

 Leads to coral bleaching, marine heatwaves, altered fisheries.

(b) Sea Level Rise

Two main contributors:

1. Thermal expansion – warm water expands.

2. Melting glaciers and ice sheets – adds volume to oceans.

 Current rate: ~ 3–4 mm per year on average.

Impacts: Coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion, loss of coastal ecosystems.

(c) Ocean Acidification

 CO₂ reacts with seawater forming carbonic acid → lowering pH.

 Oceans have become ~30% more acidic since the industrial era.

Effect: Shell-forming organisms (corals, mollusks) are threatened.

(d) Changes in Ocean Circulation

 Possible weakening of AMOC (Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation).

 Influences monsoons, regional climates, and heat distribution.

3. Cryospheric Indicators
(a) Melting Glaciers

 Rapid reduction in glacier mass across Himalayas, Alps, Andes, and Arctic.
 Contributes to sea-level rise and alters river flow regimes.

(b) Decline in Arctic Sea Ice

 Each decade shows decreasing ice extent and thickness.

 Summer Arctic sea ice declining at 13% per decade (satellite record).

Impact: Alters global weather patterns and polar ecosystem.

(c) Ice Sheet Loss (Greenland & Antarctica)

 Greenland: substantial melting during summer seasons.

 Antarctica: accelerated coastal ice shelf thinning.

(d) Snow Cover Decline

 Northern Hemisphere snow extent is decreasing.

 Earlier snowmelt affects river flows and agriculture.

4. Land Surface Indicators

(a) Changing Precipitation Patterns

 Some regions are getting wetter (northern latitudes); others drier (Africa, South Asia).
 Intensified monsoons and altered seasonal rainfall patterns.

(b) Drought Frequency and Severity

 Increasing in many regions due to high temperatures and changing rainfall.

 Impacts agriculture, water supply, forest health.

(c) Vegetation Changes

 Longer growing seasons in temperate regions.

 Increased plant stress and mortality in hotter, arid areas.
 Shift of ecosystems: forests moving polewards.

(d) Desertification

 Expanding in dry regions due to climate change + human pressure.

 Notable in the Sahel, India’s arid zones, Western Australia.

5. Biological and Ecological Indicators

(a) Species Migration and Extinction Risks

 Species shifting their ranges towards poles or higher altitudes.

  Marine species moving to cooler waters.
 Risk of biodiversity loss increases.

(b) Coral Bleaching Events

 Triggered by marine heatwaves.

 Repeated bleaching reduces reef resilience.

(c) Phenological Changes

Phenology = seasonal biological events

 Plants flowering earlier.

 Birds migrating earlier or changing routes.
 Altered breeding patterns.

6. Socioeconomic and Human Indicators

(a) Increased Climate-related Disasters

 Losses due to cyclones, floods, wildfires, droughts rising year by year.

 More climate refugees due to sea level rise and extreme events.

(b) Human Health Impacts

 Rise in heat-related illnesses and mortality.

 Spread of vector-borne diseases (malaria, dengue) into new regions.

Health Impacts of Global Warming –

Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth’s average temperature due to increasing
greenhouse gases. This warming affects human health directly and indirectly through changes
in climate, environment, ecosystems, and social systems.
The WHO identifies climate change as the greatest global health threat of the 21st century.

Health impacts can be classified into direct, indirect, and socio-economic/psychosocial

effects.

1. Direct Health Impacts

These result from immediate exposure to extreme weather and temperature changes.

(a) Heat Stress and Heat-Related Illnesses

Rising temperatures cause:

  Heat exhaustion
 Heat cramps
 Heat syncope (fainting)
 Heatstroke (life-threatening)

Vulnerable groups: elderly, infants, outdoor workers, people with chronic diseases.

Mechanism:
High temperatures impair the body's ability to regulate heat → dehydration → organ damage.

(b) Increased Mortality During Heatwaves

 Heatwaves cause thousands of deaths annually.

 Heat aggravates cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal diseases.

Example: Major heatwaves in Europe, India, Pakistan.

(c) Injuries and Deaths from Extreme Weather

Global warming intensifies:

 Cyclones / hurricanes
 Floods
 Droughts
 Wildfires
 Storm surges

These can cause:

 Physical injuries
 Burns
 Trauma
 Drowning
 Infrastructure collapse

2. Indirect Health Impacts

These occur due to climate-induced changes in ecosystems, water systems, agriculture, and
disease patterns.

(a) Spread of Vector-Borne Diseases

Warmer and wetter conditions expand breeding grounds for:

 Mosquitoes (Aedes, Anopheles)

 Ticks
 Flies

Diseases that may increase:

  Malaria
 Dengue
 Zika virus
 Chikungunya
 Lyme disease

Higher temperatures accelerate vectors’ reproduction cycles.

(b) Water-Borne Diseases

Floods, heavy rainfall, and warmer water favor pathogens like:

 Vibrio cholera
 Giardia
 Cryptosporidium
 Rotavirus

Increased cases of:

 Cholera
 Diarrhea
 Gastrointestinal infections

Floodwaters often contaminate drinking water sources.

(c) Food-Borne Illnesses

Higher temperatures encourage growth of:

 Salmonella
 E. coli
 Listeria

Leading to increased food spoilage and poisoning.

(d) Impacts on Food Security and Nutrition

Climate change disrupts agriculture through:

 Heat stress
 Drought
 Unpredictable rainfall
 Pest outbreaks

Impacts:

 Malnutrition
 Micronutrient deficiencies (iron, vitamin A)
 Reduced crop yields
 Lower protein content in grains due to CO₂ fertilization.
Children are especially vulnerable.

(e) Air Quality and Respiratory Diseases

1. Increased Ground-Level Ozone

Warmer temperatures boost ozone formation →

 Asthma
 COPD
 Reduced lung function
 Eye irritation

2. Higher Particulate Matter (PM) from Wildfires

Global warming increases wildfires → more smoke →

 Bronchitis
 Cardiovascular diseases
 Preterm birth risks

3. Longer Allergy Seasons

Higher CO₂ → increased pollen production →

 Allergic rhinitis
 Asthma triggers

3. Psychosocial and Mental Health Impacts

Climate change also affects mental and emotional well-being.

(a) Eco-anxiety and Climate Stress

Constant news about climate disasters creates:

 Anxiety
 Depression
 Feelings of helplessness
 Future uncertainty

Common in youth.

(b) Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Victims of:

 Cyclones
 Floods
 Wildfires
  Displacement

may develop PTSD, depression, or long-term psychological trauma.

(c) Loss of Livelihoods → Stress and Suicide

Droughts and crop failures:

 Increase farmer distress

 Contribute to suicides
 Cause poverty-related mental health problems

4. Health Impacts on Vulnerable Groups

Certain populations face greater risks:

 Children – immature immune system, dehydration risk

 Elderly – weaker thermoregulation
 Pregnant women – heat-induced complications
 People with chronic diseases
 Poor communities – limited access to health care
 Coastal populations – flood exposure
 Indigenous populations – loss of habitat and resources

5. Long-Term Global Health Consequences

(a) Increased Mortality Rates

Due to heatwaves, disease outbreaks, and malnutrition.

(b) Increased Health Care Burden

Hospitals face higher demand during extreme temperatures and disasters.

(c) Climate-Induced Migration

Sea-level rise, drought, and crop failure force communities to move →

 Health problems in temporary shelters

 Spread of communicable diseases
 Poor sanitation

Effects of Global Warming on Biodiversity

Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth’s average surface temperature due
to rising concentrations of greenhouse gases. This warming disrupts ecosystems and causes
rapid, often irreversible changes to biodiversity.

Below are the key effects explained in detail:

1. Habitat Loss and Alteration

Rising temperatures cause significant changes in natural habitats:

a) Melting glaciers and polar ice

 Arctic and Antarctic species (polar bears, penguins, seals) are losing breeding
grounds.
 Reduction in sea ice affects sea-ice algae → impacts entire food chain.

b) Coral bleaching

 Warming oceans cause corals to expel zooxanthellae.

 Leads to coral bleaching and mass die-offs.
 Coral reefs support 25% of marine species, so their loss causes massive biodiversity
decline.

c) Disappearance of alpine and tundra habitats

 Alpine meadows shrink as temperatures rise.

 Tundra vegetation is replaced by shrubs, altering habitat for caribou, reindeer, Arctic
fox, etc.

2. Species Extinction

Global warming is increasing extinction rates due to:

 Inability to adapt to rapidly changing temperature conditions.

 Narrow ecological niche of many species.
 Increased competition and predation.

Particularly vulnerable groups:

 Amphibians (high sensitivity to temperature/moisture change)

 Coral species
 Amazon rainforest species
 Endemic island species

IPCC reports indicate that 20–30% of plant and animal species are at risk of extinction if
temperature rises exceed 1.5–2°C.

3. Range Shifts (Migration of Species)

Species are shifting their geographic ranges to survive:

 Moving poleward (towards higher latitudes)

 Moving upward to higher altitudes

Examples:
  Himalayan species moving to higher elevations.
 Marine species migrating to cooler northern waters.

Problem: Not all species can migrate → creates “winners” and “losers,” disrupting ecological
balance.

4. Phenological Changes (Changes in Life-Cycle Events)

Phenology = timing of biological events.

Due to warming:

 Birds migrate earlier.

 Plants flower earlier.
 Insects hatch sooner.
 Many species breed earlier.

This leads to mismatch between species:

 Birds may hatch before peak insect availability.

 Plants may flower before pollinators emerge.

This mismatch reduces survival, reproduction, and ecosystem functioning.

5. Ocean Acidification

Excess CO₂ absorbed by oceans forms carbonic acid → lowers pH.

Effects:

 Difficulty in shell formation for corals, mollusks, plankton.

 Affects entire marine food web.
 Decline of fisheries and marine biodiversity.

6. Increased Frequency of Extreme Events

Global warming increases:

 Heatwaves
 Floods
 Droughts
 Wildfires
 Cyclones

These sudden extreme events cause:

 Mass mortality
 Habitat destruction
 Soil erosion and land degradation
Example: Australian bushfires killed billions of animals (2020).

7. Spread of Invasive Species

Warmer climates allow invasive species to:

 Establish in new regions

 Outcompete native species

Examples:

 Lionfish invasion in the Atlantic.

 Parthenium and Lantana spreading in India.
 Mosquito species spreading to new areas.

8. Spread of Pests and Diseases

Warming influences pathogen survival:

 Rise of vector-borne diseases (malaria, dengue, chikungunya)

 Warming expands habitat of disease-carrying insects
 Forest diseases (fungal infections, bark beetles) increase

Plants, animals, and humans become vulnerable to new diseases.

9. Loss of Ecosystem Services

Biodiversity loss due to global warming affects:

 Pollination
 Water purification
 Carbon sequestration
 Nutrient cycling
 Food production
 Climate regulation

This directly impacts human survival and economic stability.

10. Changes in Community Structure

Warming reshapes entire ecosystems:

 Some species disappear

 Some become dominant
 Food webs destabilize

Example:
  Decline in predators alters herbivore population
 Alters vegetation and ecosystem processes

Introduction to Global Efforts in Conservation of Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms, including genes, species, and
ecosystems. Over the last century, biodiversity has been under severe threat due to habitat
loss, pollution, overexploitation, invasive species, and climate change. These threats are
global in scale, so no single country can address them alone.

Therefore, international cooperation became essential, leading to the development of global

efforts, treaties, conventions, and organizations dedicated to conserving biodiversity.

Global efforts represent the collective action of nations, supported by scientific research,
policy frameworks, and funding mechanisms, to protect Earth’s natural heritage.

Why Global Efforts Are Needed

Global biodiversity conservation requires international collaboration because:

1. Biodiversity is shared across borders

 Migratory birds, marine species, river ecosystems do not follow political boundaries.
 Conservation must be coordinated globally.

2. Environmental problems are global

 Climate change, pollution, invasive species spread globally.

 Demands global-level policy and cooperation.

3. Many countries lack resources

 Developing nations often have rich biodiversity but limited funds.

 Global agreements provide technology transfer and financial support.

4. Trade and globalization impact ecosystems

 International trade in wildlife, timber, and medicinal plants increases exploitation.

 Global policies regulate sustainable use.

Major Global Efforts in Biodiversity Conservation

1. International Conventions

These are legally binding agreements signed by multiple countries.

a) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992

 Most comprehensive global treaty on biodiversity.

 Objectives: Conservation, sustainable use, fair benefit-sharing.
 Led to Aichi Targets (2010–2020) and Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework
(2022).

b) CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), 1973

 Regulates international trade of flora & fauna.

 Prevents overexploitation of endangered species.

c) Ramsar Convention, 1971

 Protects wetlands of international importance.

 Promotes wise use of wetland ecosystems.

d) UNFCCC & Paris Agreement

 Focus on climate change mitigation.

 Indirectly protects biodiversity by reducing climate-related impacts.

e) Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), 1979

 Protects migratory species like birds, whales, turtles.

2. International Organizations & Agencies

These provide scientific research, monitoring, policy guidance, and funding.

a) IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)

 Maintains the Red List of threatened species.

 Supports protected area management.

b) UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)

 Coordinates global environmental activities.

 Assists countries in biodiversity planning.

c) WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature)

 Works on conservation projects globally.

 Focus on endangered species and sustainable development.

d) FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)

 Conserves genetic resources for food and agriculture.

 Promotes sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fisheries.
3. Protected Area Networks

Global efforts promote the establishment of protected areas:

 National Parks
 Wildlife Sanctuaries
 Biosphere Reserves
 Marine Protected Areas

UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme promotes ecosystems that combine
conservation with sustainable use.

4. Global Biodiversity Assessment & Monitoring

Many scientific platforms track biodiversity loss globally:

IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity & Ecosystem

Services)

 Evaluates status of biodiversity worldwide.

 Provides warnings and policy recommendations.

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF)

 Provides open-access biodiversity data.

Earth Observations (GEO BON)

 Satellite-based ecosystem monitoring.

5. Funding Mechanisms

Developing nations receive financial help through:

a) Global Environment Facility (GEF)

 Funds biodiversity projects in developing countries.

 Supports CBD implementation.

b) Green Climate Fund (GCF)

 Supports climate-resilient ecosystems.

c) World Bank & International NGOs

 Provide grants and loans for conservation.

6. Global Biodiversity Targets and Strategies

International communities set time-bound goals:

Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011–2020)

 20 global targets (protected areas, habitat restoration, reducing pollution).

Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022–2030)

Includes the “30 by 30 Target”:

 Protect 30% of world’s land and oceans by 2030.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) —

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process used to identify, predict, and
evaluate the potential environmental impacts of a proposed project before it is allowed to
proceed.

It is a decision-making tool that helps governments, industries, and planners ensure that
development projects are environmentally sustainable and socially responsible.

EIA is:

 A scientific and administrative process that examines the likely environmental

consequences of a project.
 A method to ensure that environmental considerations are included in planning and
decision-making.
 A tool to prevent environmental damage, not just manage it after it occurs.

In simple terms:
EIA evaluates how a project will affect the environment and suggests measures to reduce or
avoid negative impacts.

Purpose of EIA

The main goals of EIA are:

a) Predict environmental impacts

Such as pollution, habitat loss, water use, soil degradation, etc.

b) Identify risk to human health and ecology

Ensures public safety and ecological balance.

c) Propose mitigation measures

Suggests ways to minimize environmental damage.

d) Promote sustainable development

Ensures project benefits do not compromise environmental quality.

e) Facilitate informed decision-making

Authorities approve, reject, or modify projects based on EIA results.

f) Encourage public participation

Local communities express concerns, ensuring transparency.

Key Components of EIA

EIA consists of several components:

1. Screening

Determines whether a project needs EIA and its level of assessment.

2. Scoping

Identifies key environmental issues that need detailed study.

3. Baseline Study

Collects existing environmental data (air, water, soil, flora, fauna, socio-economic
conditions).

4. Impact Prediction

Uses scientific models to predict changes in:

 Air & water quality

 Noise levels
 Biodiversity
 Land use
 Social and economic conditions

5. Mitigation Measures

Strategies to avoid, reduce, or control negative impacts.

6. Preparation of EIA Report

Document containing findings, predictions, and recommendations.

7. Public Consultation

Public hearing is conducted; local people give suggestions and objections.

8. Appraisal and Decision-making

Expert committee reviews EIA report and approves or rejects the project.
9. Monitoring and Compliance

Post-approval monitoring ensures project follows environmental rules.

Types of Impacts Assessed in EIA

 Direct impacts – immediate effects (e.g., habitat destruction).

 Indirect impacts – secondary effects (e.g., migration of wildlife).
 Cumulative impacts – combined effect of multiple projects.
 Short-term & Long-term impacts
 Reversible & Irreversible impacts

Advantages of EIA

 Protects environment and natural resources.

 Reduces pollution and ecological damage.
 Avoids costly mistakes in project planning.
 Supports sustainable development.
 Builds trust through public participation.
 Ensures legal compliance for industries.

Limitations of EIA

 Can be time-consuming.
 Quality depends on data accuracy.
 Sometimes influenced by political/industrial pressure.
 Insufficient public awareness.
 Weak enforcement in some regions.

Examples of Projects Requiring EIA

 Dams and hydropower projects

 Mining activities
 Large industries (cement, chemical, fertilizer plants)
 Highways, airports, ports
 Waste management facilities
 Thermal power plants

EIA in India (Brief)

 Governed by Environmental Protection Act, 1986.

 First EIA notification issued in 1994.
 Revised and replaced in 2006 with new procedures.
 Categorizes projects as Category A (central government approval) and Category B
(state-level approval).
 Public hearings made mandatory for most projects.
Summary for Quick Revision

 EIA = tool to predict and evaluate environmental impacts of a project before

implementation.
 Ensures environmental protection and sustainable development.
 Includes steps like screening, scoping, baseline study, impact prediction, mitigation,
public hearing, and monitoring.
 Legally mandatory for major development projects.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) regulations in India —

Below is a focused, structured guide to EIA regulations in India — legal basis, institutional
setup, procedural stages, key provisions, recent amendments & controversies, and quick
revision notes. I cite official sources and reliable analyses for the most important factual
claims.

1) Legal & policy basis

 Primary legal authority: Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 — the MoEFCC (now
Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change) issues EIA rules/notifications
under this Act.
 Key notification: EIA Notification, 2006 (and its subsequent amendments) is the
principal instrument that prescribes which projects need prior environmental
clearance (EC) and the procedural steps to obtain it. Environment Clearance+1

2) Objective of the EIA regime

 Ensure that environmental considerations are integrated into planning and decision-
making for projects so adverse impacts are predicted, avoided or mitigated, and public
consultations are taken into account before clearance is granted. Environment
Clearance

3) Institutional framework & actors

 Central level: MoEFCC (policy & final clearance for Category A projects); Expert
Appraisal Committees (EACs) advise MoEFCC on technical appraisal. Environment
Clearance
 State level: State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) grants
clearance for Category B projects; State Expert Appraisal Committees (SEAC)
evaluate and recommend. SMS ENVOCARE LTD
 Other actors: State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), District Magistrates (for public
notices), and statutory bodies for forest/wildlife clearances where relevant. IELRC

4) Project categorization (who is appraised where)

  Category A: Projects with potential trans-state/large impacts — appraised centrally by
MoEFCC/EAC.
 Category B: Appraised at state level by SEIAA/SEAC. Category B is further divided
into B1 (requires full EIA & public consultation) and B2 (normally exempted from
full EIA; may not require an EIA report unless the authority so directs). This
categorization is part of the 2006 Notification and later clarifications. Environment
Clearance+1

5) The procedural stages (step-by-step)

1. Screening — determines applicability and category (A/B). (B projects may be

screened to decide B1 vs B2.) [Link]
2. Scoping / Terms of Reference (ToR) — specific ToR for the EIA study (data needs,
baseline duration, special studies). Environment Clearance
3. Baseline studies & EIA report preparation — ecological, air/water/noise, socio-
economic studies; preparation of Environmental Management Plan (EMP). IELRC
4. Public consultation (public hearing) — notice, hearing, recording of concerns; public
issues must be addressed in the EIA/EMP. (The timing/notice period and scope of
consultation have been contentious in recent years.) Drishti IAS+1
5. Appraisal — EAC (central) or SEAC (state) reviews the EIA, public hearing record
and EMP; recommend conditions/clearance or rejection. Environment Clearance
6. Decision (Environmental Clearance) — MoEFCC/SEIAA issues EC with conditions
(mitigation, monitoring, compensatory measures). Environment Clearance
7. Post-clearance compliance & monitoring — periodic environmental monitoring,
submission of compliance reports, and potential revocation for non-compliance.
Digital reporting via the PARIVESH portal is increasingly used. Parivesh

6) Important technical/legal requirements

 EIA Report & EMP: must include baseline data, impact prediction, mitigation
measures, a plan for corporate environment responsibility / CSR (as required), and a
monitoring program. IELRC
 Public hearing: promoters must publish notices and conduct hearings; comments must
be considered and recorded in the final EIA/EMP chapter. The notice period and
exemptions have changed at times (see below). Parivesh+1
 Compensatory measures: for forest diversion, biodiversity impacts, displacements —
statutory or policy conditions (forest clearance, wildlife clearance) may also be
required in parallel. IELRC

7) Digitalization — the PARIVESH portal

 PARIVESH (and its upgraded versions) is the single-window online portal for
submission of applications, EIA documents, tracking, and compliance reporting —
intended to speed up processing and ensure transparency. Recent Omnibus
instructions require many submissions through the portal. Parivesh

8) Recent amendments, trends & controversies (what to watch)

 Draft EIA Notification 2020: widely criticized for proposals perceived to dilute public
participation (shorter notice for hearings), exemption/fast-tracking of certain projects,
 post-facto clearances in some cases, and broader delegations to state authorities. It
triggered large public protests and legal scrutiny. Drishti IAS+1
 Multiple amendments since 2019–2023: MoEFCC has issued several S.O.
notifications that modify procedural details, introduce sectoral clarifications, and
change timelines — these are listed on the official EIA Notifications page. Always
check the consolidated official notification for the latest legal text. Environment
Clearance
 Sectoral and exemption debates (2024–2025): there have been policy moves and news
reports (and court/NGT interventions) around exemptions from public consultation
for some mining projects (e.g., strategic/critical minerals) and around reconstitution or
functioning of State appraisal bodies — these have been controversial and are being
litigated/ debated publicly. Always verify the status for the specific sector/project.
VISION IAS+1

9) Common criticisms & limitations

 Delays and capacity constraints at state committees lead to pendency. (Some

SEIAAs/SEACs have been defunct at times creating backlogs.) The Times of India
 Quality of EIAs varies — poor baseline data or biased consultant reports can weaken
the process. IELRC
 Political / economic pressures can influence clearance decisions; NGOs and courts
(NGT, High Courts, Supreme Court) remain important checks. Mongabay-India

10) Practical tips for students / practitioners (exam & field)

 Read the EIA Notification, 2006 (consolidated with amendments) — that is the
primary source. (See the MoEFCC / [Link] listing.)
Environment Clearance+1
 Be clear on Category A vs B (and B1/B2) and the specific thresholds for sectors
(mining, thermal, ports, townships etc.). Drishti IAS
 Memorize the procedural stages: Screening → Scoping/ToR → Baseline → EIA/EMP
preparation → Public hearing → Appraisal → Decision → Monitoring. Environment
Clearance
 Follow current events: draft notifications, sectoral exemptions, and landmark
NGT/SC orders can change practice (even if not immediately changing the
notification text). Mongabay-India+1

11) Quick revision (bullet points)

 Law: Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

 Main rule: EIA Notification, 2006 (with multiple subsequent S.O. amendments).
Environment Clearance
 Categories: A (central), B (state) → B1 (EIA needed), B2 (EIA not required
generally). Environment Clearance
 Key stages: Screening → Scoping (ToR) → EIA/EMP → Public consultation →
Appraisal → EC → Monitoring. Environment Clearance
 Portal: PARIVESH for submissions and monitoring. Parivesh

Sources & further reading (official / reliable)

 1. EIA Notification, 2006 — consolidated and amendments (Ministry/MoEFCC
listings). Environment Clearance+1
2. Official EIA Notification (PDF text) — for exact clauses and procedural language.
IELRC
3. Analysis of Draft EIA Notification 2020 and controversies (policy/civil society
analyses). Drishti IAS+1
4. PARIVESH portal documents / OM on procedural implementation. Parivesh
5. Recent news / policy updates (e.g., exemptions, reconstitution issues) — follow
Ministry releases and NGT/SC orders for project-level changes

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) regulations in India —

Below is a focused, structured guide to EIA regulations in India — legal basis, institutional
setup, procedural stages, key provisions, recent amendments & controversies, and quick
revision notes. I cite official sources and reliable analyses for the most important factual
claims.

1) Legal & policy basis

 Primary legal authority: Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 — the MoEFCC (now
Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change) issues EIA rules/notifications
under this Act.
 Key notification: EIA Notification, 2006 (and its subsequent amendments) is the
principal instrument that prescribes which projects need prior environmental
clearance (EC) and the procedural steps to obtain it. Environment Clearance+1

2) Objective of the EIA regime

 Ensure that environmental considerations are integrated into planning and decision-
making for projects so adverse impacts are predicted, avoided or mitigated, and public
consultations are taken into account before clearance is granted. Environment
Clearance

3) Institutional framework & actors

 Central level: MoEFCC (policy & final clearance for Category A projects); Expert
Appraisal Committees (EACs) advise MoEFCC on technical appraisal. Environment
Clearance
 State level: State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) grants
clearance for Category B projects; State Expert Appraisal Committees (SEAC)
evaluate and recommend. SMS ENVOCARE LTD
 Other actors: State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), District Magistrates (for public
notices), and statutory bodies for forest/wildlife clearances where relevant. IELRC

4) Project categorization (who is appraised where)

  Category A: Projects with potential trans-state/large impacts — appraised centrally by
MoEFCC/EAC.
 Category B: Appraised at state level by SEIAA/SEAC. Category B is further divided
into B1 (requires full EIA & public consultation) and B2 (normally exempted from
full EIA; may not require an EIA report unless the authority so directs). This
categorization is part of the 2006 Notification and later clarifications. Environment
Clearance+1

5) The procedural stages (step-by-step)

1. Screening — determines applicability and category (A/B). (B projects may be

screened to decide B1 vs B2.) [Link]
2. Scoping / Terms of Reference (ToR) — specific ToR for the EIA study (data needs,
baseline duration, special studies). Environment Clearance
3. Baseline studies & EIA report preparation — ecological, air/water/noise, socio-
economic studies; preparation of Environmental Management Plan (EMP). IELRC
4. Public consultation (public hearing) — notice, hearing, recording of concerns; public
issues must be addressed in the EIA/EMP. (The timing/notice period and scope of
consultation have been contentious in recent years.) Drishti IAS+1
5. Appraisal — EAC (central) or SEAC (state) reviews the EIA, public hearing record
and EMP; recommend conditions/clearance or rejection. Environment Clearance
6. Decision (Environmental Clearance) — MoEFCC/SEIAA issues EC with conditions
(mitigation, monitoring, compensatory measures). Environment Clearance
7. Post-clearance compliance & monitoring — periodic environmental monitoring,
submission of compliance reports, and potential revocation for non-compliance.
Digital reporting via the PARIVESH portal is increasingly used. Parivesh

6) Important technical/legal requirements

 EIA Report & EMP: must include baseline data, impact prediction, mitigation
measures, a plan for corporate environment responsibility / CSR (as required), and a
monitoring program. IELRC
 Public hearing: promoters must publish notices and conduct hearings; comments must
be considered and recorded in the final EIA/EMP chapter. The notice period and
exemptions have changed at times (see below). Parivesh+1
 Compensatory measures: for forest diversion, biodiversity impacts, displacements —
statutory or policy conditions (forest clearance, wildlife clearance) may also be
required in parallel. IELRC

7) Digitalization — the PARIVESH portal

 PARIVESH (and its upgraded versions) is the single-window online portal for
submission of applications, EIA documents, tracking, and compliance reporting —
intended to speed up processing and ensure transparency. Recent Omnibus
instructions require many submissions through the portal. Parivesh

8) Recent amendments, trends & controversies (what to watch)

 Draft EIA Notification 2020: widely criticized for proposals perceived to dilute public
participation (shorter notice for hearings), exemption/fast-tracking of certain projects,
 post-facto clearances in some cases, and broader delegations to state authorities. It
triggered large public protests and legal scrutiny. Drishti IAS+1
 Multiple amendments since 2019–2023: MoEFCC has issued several S.O.
notifications that modify procedural details, introduce sectoral clarifications, and
change timelines — these are listed on the official EIA Notifications page. Always
check the consolidated official notification for the latest legal text. Environment
Clearance
 Sectoral and exemption debates (2024–2025): there have been policy moves and news
reports (and court/NGT interventions) around exemptions from public consultation
for some mining projects (e.g., strategic/critical minerals) and around reconstitution or
functioning of State appraisal bodies — these have been controversial and are being
litigated/ debated publicly. Always verify the status for the specific sector/project.
VISION IAS+1

9) Common criticisms & limitations

 Delays and capacity constraints at state committees lead to pendency. (Some

SEIAAs/SEACs have been defunct at times creating backlogs.) The Times of India
 Quality of EIAs varies — poor baseline data or biased consultant reports can weaken
the process. IELRC
 Political / economic pressures can influence clearance decisions; NGOs and courts
(NGT, High Courts, Supreme Court) remain important checks. Mongabay-India

10) Practical tips for students / practitioners (exam & field)

 Read the EIA Notification, 2006 (consolidated with amendments) — that is the
primary source. (See the MoEFCC / [Link] listing.)
Environment Clearance+1
 Be clear on Category A vs B (and B1/B2) and the specific thresholds for sectors
(mining, thermal, ports, townships etc.). Drishti IAS
 Memorize the procedural stages: Screening → Scoping/ToR → Baseline → EIA/EMP
preparation → Public hearing → Appraisal → Decision → Monitoring. Environment
Clearance
 Follow current events: draft notifications, sectoral exemptions, and landmark
NGT/SC orders can change practice (even if not immediately changing the
notification text). Mongabay-India+1

Sources & further reading (official / reliable)

1. EIA Notification, 2006 — consolidated and amendments (Ministry/MoEFCC

listings). Environment Clearance+1
2. Official EIA Notification (PDF text) — for exact clauses and procedural language.
IELRC
3. Analysis of Draft EIA Notification 2020 and controversies (policy/civil society
analyses). Drishti IAS+1
4. PARIVESH portal documents / OM on procedural implementation. Parivesh
5. Recent news / policy updates (e.g., exemptions, reconstitution issues) — follow
Ministry releases and NGT/SC orders for project-level changes. VISION IAS+1
Status of EIA in India —

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in India has evolved significantly over the last four
decades. Today, it is a mandatory regulatory process, legally backed, but also widely debated
for its strengths and weaknesses. The current status reflects a mix of progress, challenges,
reforms, and controversies.

1. Historical background (How EIA developed in India)

• Pre-1994: No legal mandate

 EIA was carried out only for river valley projects as per administrative guidelines of
the Ministry of Environment.
 No formal law or compulsory public consultation.

• 1994: First EIA Notification

 Issued under Environment Protection Act, 1986.

 Made Environmental Clearance (EC) mandatory for 29 categories of projects.
 Introduced public hearings for the first time.

• 2006: Major reform – EIA Notification 2006

 Replaced 1994 notification.

 Introduced Category A & B projects.
 Delegated state-level clearance authority to SEIAA/SEAC.
 Strengthened scoping, ToR, EIA report quality, and public consultation.

Current EIA system in India is built primarily on the 2006 notification.

2. Present institutional structure (Current Status)

EIA in India involves three levels:

1. Central Government (MoEFCC)

 Clears Category A projects.

 Supported by Expert Appraisal Committees (EACs).

2. State Level

 State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) issues clearance for

Category B projects.
 State Expert Appraisal Committees (SEACs) examine EIA reports.

3. Regulatory Support Bodies

 Pollution Control Boards (CPCB & SPCBs)

 District administration (public hearings)
 PARIVESH portal (online clearance system)
This multi-tiered structure is currently active across India, although the efficiency varies
between states.

3. Current EIA Process in India (Status of implementation)

The EIA process includes:

 Screening
 Scoping / Terms of Reference (ToR)
 Baseline data collection
 Impact prediction
 Public hearing
 Appraisal
 Environmental Clearance (EC)
 Post-clearance monitoring

Digitalization status:

 The Government introduced the PARIVESH portal, a single-window online system

for filing, tracking, and monitoring clearances.
 Clearances are now quicker due to online workflows.

4. Positive Developments and Achievements

1. Legal backing and clear framework

 EIA is legally enforceable under EPA 1986.

 Defined procedures for industries ensure environmental accountability.

2. Public participation is now mandatory

 Public hearings give local communities a voice.

 Enhances transparency.

3. Expansion of project categories

 From 29 categories (1994) → Over 100+ project types regulated under the 2006
notification.

4. Faster processing due to digital reforms

 PARIVESH has reduced the time taken for clearance in many states.
 Real-time monitoring through online submission of compliance reports.

5. Increased judicial oversight

 NGT (National Green Tribunal) actively monitors faulty EIAs, violation cases, and
illegal clearances.
 Courts often quash approvals if due process is ignored.
6. Integration with other environmental laws

EIA in India now works closely with:

 Forest Conservation Act

 Wildlife Protection Act
 Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules
 Air & Water Acts

5. Challenges in the Current EIA System

Despite progress, several issues affect EIA’s effectiveness.

A) Weak Quality of EIA Reports

 Many EIA reports are copy-paste, inaccurate, or biased.

 Consultants sometimes lack field data leading to poor predictions.
 Baseline data manipulation is a major criticism.

B) Ineffective Public Participation

 Public hearings often rushed or manipulated.

 Notices may not reach affected communities.
 Language and technical jargon limit understanding.

C) Over-dependence on Project Proponents

 EIA is funded by the project developer → conflict of interest.

 Leads to underreporting of impacts.

D) Dilution through Amendments

 Several amendments since 2014 reduced public consultation requirements.

 Burdens on industry reduced → environmental safeguards weakened.

E) SEIAA/SEAC functioning issues

 Many states face:

o Staff shortages
o Delayed committee meetings
o Pending appraisals
o Inadequate technical expertise

F) Post-clearance monitoring is weak

 Industries often do not comply with clearance conditions.

 SPCBs lack manpower to conduct regular inspections.
6. Recent Updates (2020–2024)

A) Draft EIA Notification 2020 (most controversial)

Proposed changes:

 Post-facto approvals
 Reduced public consultation window
 More project categories exempted from EIA
 Increased validity of clearances

It received heavy criticism and thousands of objections.

B) New reforms in 2023–2024

 Efforts to simplify clearance for:

o Green hydrogen
o Strategic mineral mining
o Infrastructure projects
 Introduced environmental audit and self-compliance mechanisms.
 Use of satellite remote sensing for monitoring.

7. Overall Status — Balanced Conclusion

The status of EIA in India today can be described as:

1) Legally strong but operationally weak

 Good laws and procedures exist, but implementation is inconsistent.

2) Improving in technology, but declining in transparency

 Digital systems improved speed,

 But public participation and transparency have weakened in recent amendments.

3) Increasingly criticized for dilution

 Several amendments perceived as favouring industry rather than environmental

protection.

4) Courts act as major watchdogs

 NGT and Supreme Court often intervene to correct violations.

5) EIA is still essential, but needs reforms

 Stronger data standards

 Independent EIA consultants
 Better monitoring
 Real community involvement
⭐ PROJECTS NEEDING ENVIRONMENTAL CLEARANCE (EC) UNDER EIA
NOTIFICATION, 2006

The EIA Notification, 2006 classifies projects into:

 Category A (appraised by MoEFCC at the Central Level)

 Category B1 (State-level appraisal + EIA required)
 Category B2 (State-level appraisal + no EIA needed)

Projects are listed in the Schedule of the notification. Any project listed in the Schedule must
obtain EC before starting construction or operation.

1. MINING, EXTRACTION & MINERAL PROCESSING PROJECTS

These include activities that extract mineral, ores, or fossil fuels from the earth.

1.1 Mining of Minerals (Opencast & Underground)

 Coal mining
 Iron ore, bauxite, gold, uranium, copper mining
 Limestone and shale mining
 Sand, gravel, and minor minerals (when extraction > prescribed limit)

🔹 Environmental impact: land degradation, water pollution, air pollution, deforestation.

1.2 Offshore & Onshore Oil and Gas Exploration

 Drilling wells for oil and natural gas

 Production and separation units
 Associated pipelines and terminals

🔹 Reason for EC: oil spills, chemical contamination, marine disturbance.

1.3 Mineral Beneficiation Units

 Crushing, grinding, ore washing, concentration plants

🔹 Reason: large-scale water and energy consumption.

2. INDUSTRIAL PROJECTS

Industries with high pollution potential must obtain EC.

2.1 Metallurgical Industries

 Steel plants
 Ferro-alloy industries
 Non-ferrous metal units (copper, zinc, aluminium smelters)
2.2 Petroleum and Petrochemical Projects

 Oil refineries
 Petrochemical complexes
 Synthetic rubber units
 Carbon black units

2.3 Chemical Industries

 Fertilizer manufacturing
 Pesticide/ insecticide units
 Bulk drug & pharmaceutical manufacturing
 Dyes, dye intermediates
 Organic and inorganic chemicals

2.4 Cement Industries

 Clinker production
 Integrated cement plants

2.5 Food & Agro-Based Industries

 Sugar mills
 Distilleries (molasses-based & grain-based)
 Leather tanning units

🔹 Reason: High wastewater load, chemical discharge.

3. ENERGY PROJECTS

3.1 Thermal Power Plants

 Coal-based
 Lignite-based
 Gas-based
 Diesel-based

3.2 Nuclear Power Projects

 Nuclear reactors
 Uranium processing units

3.3 Hydroelectric Power Projects

  Reservoirs
 Dams > 25 MW generation capacity

3.4 Renewable Energy Projects (Certain Types)

 Biomass energy plants

 Waste-to-energy plants

4. INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

These involve construction and large-scale land conversion.

4.1 Highways & Transportation Projects

 New national highways

 Expansion of existing highways
 Expressways and bypass roads

4.2 Ports, Harbours, and Coastal Projects

 Construction of ports
 Harbour expansion
 Dredging and reclamation
 Shipyards, jetties, marinas

4.3 Airports

 New airport construction

 Expansion of runways
 Airstrip development

4.4 Railway Projects

 New railway line

 Doubling and electrification
 Metro rail projects requiring land acquisition

4.5 Townships & Area Development Projects

 Built-up area ≥ 1,50,000 sqm

 Townships covering ≥ 50 hectares

5. WATER RESOURCES, RIVER VALLEY & IRRIGATION PROJECTS

5.1 River Valley Projects

 Dams
 Multipurpose river projects
  Interlinking of rivers
 Major irrigation projects (>10,000 ha command area)

5.2 Flood Control & Embankment Projects

 Large embankments
 River channelization

5.3 Groundwater Extraction

 Large-scale groundwater pumping for industrial use

6. WASTE MANAGEMENT PROJECTS

6.1 Hazardous Waste Management

 Hazardous waste treatment, storage, disposal facilities (TSDF)

 Common incinerators

6.2 Solid Waste Management

 Municipal Solid Waste processing facilities

 Landfills

6.3 Biomedical Waste Treatment

 Common biomedical waste incinerators

6.4 E-waste Recycling Units

7. FOREST, WOOD-BASED & NATURAL RESOURCE PROJECTS

7.1 Pulp & Paper Industry

 Wood-based and agro-residue-based paper mills

7.2 Timber-based Industries

 Sawmills
 Composite board manufacturing

7.3 Asbestos Projects

 Asbestos milling
 Asbestos-based product manufacturing
8. STORAGE & HANDLING OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES

8.1 Petroleum & Crude Oil Storage

 Tanks, terminals, and depots

 LPG, LNG storage facilities

8.2 Explosive Storage & Processing Units

8.3 Chemical Storage Terminals

9. TOURISM AND ECO-SENSITIVE AREA PROJECTS

9.1 Projects in Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

 Beach resorts and hotels

 Tourism complexes in CRZ areas

9.2 Projects in Protected Areas (irrespective of size)

 National parks
 Wildlife sanctuaries
 Biosphere reserves
 Tiger reserves
 Elephant corridors
 Eco-sensitive zones (ESZs)

⭐ SPECIAL CASE: ANY PROJECT IN ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREAS (ESAs)

These require EC even if they do not fall in the Schedule.

Examples:

 Western Ghats ESA

 Himalayan National Parks
 Reserved forests
 Wetlands

⭐ Case studies Hydropower and Thermal Power Projects

HYDROPOWER PROJECTS OF KARNATAKA

1. Overview

Karnataka has abundant hydropower potential due to:

 The Western Ghats

  Perennial rivers like Kali, Sharavathi, Netravati, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri
Total hydropower potential: ~7,000 MW
Major hydropower projects are operated by KPCL (Karnataka Power Corporation
Limited).

Case study 1: VARAHI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT – DETAILED EXPLANATION

The Varahi Hydroelectric Project is one of Karnataka’s most important underground

hydropower projects. Located in the Western Ghats, it plays a crucial role in supplying
electricity to the coastal and Malnad regions.

1. LOCATION

 District: Udupi district, Karnataka

 River: Varahi River (a tributary of the Sharavathi River)
 Geographical Setting: Western Ghats, characterized by steep terrain and heavy
rainfall.
 Coordinates: Near Hosangadi town, Varahi village
 Executed by: Karnataka Power Corporation Limited (KPCL)

The Western Ghats provide:

 High rainfall (3000–6000 mm annually)

 Steep slopes suitable for hydropower
 Stable water flow

2. PROJECT TYPE AND DESIGN FEATURES

a) Type of Project

 Run-of-the-river scheme with storage

 Underground Powerhouse located inside a mountain cavern
 High-head hydropower system

b) Major Engineering Components

1. Varahi Dam (Mani Dam)

o Built across Varahi River
o Creates a reservoir for water regulation
2. Water Conductor System
o Long headrace tunnel (several kilometres)
o Pressure shafts
o Penstocks supplying water to turbines
3. Underground Powerhouse
o Located deep under the Varahi valley
o Helps prevent land acquisition issues
 Protects the structure from environmental impact
o
Reduces visual footprint
o
4. Switchyard & Transmission
o Power evacuated through 220 kV / 400 kV lines
o Supplies west coast load centres

3. INSTALLED CAPACITY
Stage Units Capacity

Stage I 2 2 × 115 MW

Stage II 2 2 × 115 MW

TOTAL 4 UNITS 460 MW

Turbine Type: Francis turbines

Water head: High-head (>400 m) suitable for underground generation.

4. HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT

a) Initial Planning

 Conceived in 1960s
 Based on harnessing Varahi tributary water
 Intended to meet Karnataka’s coastal electricity needs

b) Construction Timeline

 Stage I construction: 1960s–1980s

 Underground powerhouse excavation took time due to:
o Hard rock geology
o Heavy monsoon
o Complex tunneling

c) Commissioning

 Stage I commissioned: early 1980s

 Stage II commissioned: early 2000s
 Upgrades and automation carried out by KPCL

5. WORKING PRINCIPLE

1. Water from Varahi reservoir is diverted through intake gates

2. Water flows through a headrace tunnel
3. It descends a steep pressure shaft
4. Water strikes the Francis turbines in the underground powerhouse
5. Turbines convert water energy → mechanical rotation
6. Generators convert mechanical power → electrical power
7. Power is transmitted to grid via switchyards
 8. Water is discharged back to Varahi river downstream

6. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

Positive Aspects

 Renewable & clean energy

 Lower CO₂ emission compared to thermal power
 Underground powerhouse → reduced surface impact
 Minimal displacement
 Maintains ecological flow

Challenges

 Western Ghats = ecologically sensitive

 Construction required controlled blasting
 Reservoir submergence of forest patches
 Strict environmental clearance conditions under EIA
 Need for proper catchment management to prevent siltation

7. HYDROLOGICAL FEATURES

 Receives water mainly from monsoon rainfall

 Reservoir supplements generation in non-monsoon months
 Catchment area includes dense evergreen & semi-evergreen forests
 Annual dependable water flow ensures peak-load generation

IMPORTANCE TO KARNATAKA

1. Major power source for coastal Karnataka

2. Provides peak load during evening and summer seasons
3. Stabilizes grid during high-demand periods
4. Reduces dependency on expensive diesel/naphtha plants
5. Supports industries in Udupi, Mangaluru regions
6. Plays key role in Karnataka’s renewable energy mix

9. UNIQUE FEATURES OF VARAHI PROJECT

 One of the few underground hydropower stations in South India

 Located in a high rainfall zone (>5000 mm)
 Designed to withstand landslides and monsoon floods
 Integrated with ecological monitoring programmes
 Uses advanced SCADA (automation) for plant operation

10. DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

 Initial delays due to difficult terrain

 Tunneling challenges (hard rock, water seepage)
 Environmental activism in Western Ghats
  Resettlement of small communities
 Occasional monsoon flooding affecting access roads

11. Challenges Faced

1. Difficult Terrain
o Hard rock tunneling
o High rainfall causing slope instability
2. Environmental Clearances
o Western Ghats restrictions led to delays
3. Public Opposition
o Concerns about forest loss, wildlife, and tribal rights
4. High Construction Costs
o Underground powerhouse adds cost and complexity
5. Sedimentation
o Reservoir faces silt buildup due to heavy rains

12. Importance of Varahi in Karnataka’s Energy Sector

 One of the major hydropower sources in Karnataka (460 MW)

 Balances power demand during peak hours
 Supports agriculture and rural development
 More environmentally friendly than coal-based power
 Strategic for grid stability of Coastal Karnataka

Case Study 2: Sharavathi Hydroelectric Project (Shimoga District)

Location & Features

 Built across the Sharavathi River

 Installed capacity: 1,035 MW
 One of India’s largest underground powerhouses.

Key Environmental Issues

1. Submergence of Forests
o Large tract of Western Ghats evergreen forest submerged.
2. Loss of Wildlife Habitat
o Affected endangered species like lion-tailed macaque and Malabar giant
squirrel.
3. Alteration of Downstream Flow
o Affected Jog Falls flow regime.
4. Micro-climate Changes
o Creation of Linganamakki reservoir altered local humidity and temperature.

EIA Findings
  Habitat fragmentation
 Increased soil erosion
 Pressure on Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

Mitigation Measures

 Afforestation in catchment areas

 Wildlife management plans
 Controlled release of water to maintain natural flow

Case Study 3: Almatti Hydropower Project (Bagalkote District)

Location

 On the Krishna River, part of Upper Krishna Project

 Capacity: 290 MW

Environmental Issues

1. Large-scale displacement of local communities

2. Reduced downstream flow affecting agriculture
3. Water quality changes due to reservoir stagnation
4. Fish migration barriers

Mitigation

 Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R&R) colonies

 Fish ladders (though not fully effective)
 Catchment area treatment plans

Case Study 4: Supa Dam (Kali River, Uttara Kannada)

Features

 Height: 101 m
 Capacity: 100 MW

Environmental Concerns

 Submergence of dense evergreen forests

 Loss of wildlife corridors in the Kali Tiger Reserve area
 Impacts on aquatic ecosystems

Mitigation
  Eco-development programs
 Relocation of people with compensation
 Reforestation initiatives

THERMAL POWER PROJECTS OF KARNATAKA

Unlike hydropower, thermal power has high emissions, water usage, waste generation, and
ash disposal issues. Karnataka runs coal-based and gas-based thermal plants.

Major Thermal Power Projects (Case Studies)

Case Study 1: Raichur Thermal Power Station (RTPS)

Location

 Shaktinagar, Raichur district

 Capacity: 1,720 MW (coal-based)

Environmental Issues

1. Air Pollution
o High SO₂, NOx, and particulate emission
o Ash dispersion affecting crop yields
2. Water Usage
o Heavy withdrawal from Krishna river
3. Fly Ash Generation
o ~2 million tonnes/year
o Concerns with ash pond overflow and groundwater contamination
4. Health Impacts
o Respiratory issues among local population

EIA Findings

 Increased PM10 and PM2.5

 Soil becoming alkaline due to fly ash deposits
 Surface water contamination near ash ponds

Mitigation Measures

 Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)

 High-efficiency dust suppression systems
 Fly ash brick manufacturing plants
 Greenbelt development around the plant

Case Study 2: Bellary Thermal Power Station (BTPS)

Location
  Kudatini, Ballari
 Capacity: 1,700 MW (coal)

Environmental Issues

1. Impact on Agriculture
o Fly ash deposition damaging sunflower and cotton crops
2. Air Quality Deterioration in Bellary
o Already pollution-prone due to mining
3. Thermal Pollution
o Warm water discharge to nearby water bodies
4. Land Degradation
o Use of large land area for ash ponds

EIA Observations

 High PM concentration in surrounding villages

 Decline in agricultural productivity
 Groundwater quality affected by leachates

Mitigation

 Conversion of fly ash to bricks & cement

 Closed-cycle cooling systems
 Soil stabilization programs
 Air quality monitoring stations

Case Study 3: Yelahanka Gas-Based Thermal Plant (Bengaluru)

Location

 Yelahanka, Bengaluru
 Capacity: 370 MW, gas-based (cleaner)

Environmental Issues

1. Lower emissions compared to coal, but still contributes CO₂

2. Land use change
3. Noise pollution from turbines

Mitigation

 Acoustic barriers
 Natural gas as clean fuel
 Strict monitoring of NOx emissions

SRI SAILAM HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT (ANDHRA PRADESH / TELANGANA)

1. Introduction
The Srisailam Hydroelectric Project is located across the Krishna River.

 Capacity: 1670 MW
 Type: Multipurpose dam + pumped storage
 One of South India's largest dams

2. Purpose

 Power generation
 Irrigation for Rayalaseema
 Drinking water supply for Andhra Pradesh
 Flood control

3. Environmental Impacts

a) Submergence of Forest Area

 Nearly 30,000 ha of forest submerged

 Loss of dry deciduous jungles of Eastern Ghats

b) Wildlife Habitat Loss

 Habitat of leopard, sloth bear, spotted deer affected

 Reduction in migratory bird nesting sites

c) Decline in Downstream Flow

 Reduced sediment availability

 Decline of fish species such as Tor khudree (mahseer)

d) Water Logging & Salinity

 Reservoir backwater effects

 Increased soil salinity in command area

4. Social Impacts

 Displacement of tribal communities (Chenchu tribes)

 Loss of forest-based livelihoods
 Submergence of old settlements and sacred sites

5. EIA & Mitigation Measures

 Tribal rehabilitation programmes

 Catchment Area Treatment Plan
 Soil conservation and afforestation
  Wildlife management plan
 Fish breeding centres for population replenishment

6. Conclusion

Srisailam demonstrates the socio-environmental complexities of hydropower in the Eastern

Ghats, especially displacement of indigenous communities.

THERMAL POWER CASE STUDY

VALLUR THERMAL POWER STATION (TAMIL NADU)

1. Introduction

The Vallur Thermal Power Project, located near Ennore in North Chennai, is one of South
India’s high-capacity thermal plants.

 Capacity: 1500 MW
 Type: Coal-based supercritical units
 Developers: NTPC + TANGEDCO

2. Purpose

 Power supply to Chennai and Tamil Nadu grid

 Support for growing industrial activities in the region

3. Environmental Impacts

a) Fly Ash Pollution

 Severe ash deposition over residential areas

 Ash in Ennore creek reducing water quality
 Leakage of ash slurry pipelines recorded several times

b) Air Pollution

 Emissions of SO₂, NOx, and PM₂.₅

 Residents reported higher asthma and bronchitis cases
 Black soot deposition on houses

c) Water Pollution

 Disposal of ash slurry into the Buckingham canal and Ennore backwaters
 Decline in fish populations affecting fisherfolk

d) Wetland Degradation
  Loss of mangroves
 Shrinking of Ennore Creek wetlands
 Reduction in natural flood buffer zones

4. Social Impacts

 Impact on fishing communities

 Water contamination affecting local households
 Noise pollution
 Heat island effect in summer months

5. EIA Mitigation Measures

 Installation of Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) units

 100% fly ash utilization mandate
 Mangrove restoration programme
 Online air monitoring systems
 Upgradation of ash pipelines

6. Conclusion

The Vallur case demonstrates the ecological vulnerability of coastal thermal power plants,
especially their impact on wetlands, fisheries, and urban communities.

NORTH INDIA – THERMAL POWER CASE STUDY

TEHRI HYDROPOWER PROJECT (UTTARAKHAND)

1. Introduction

The Tehri Hydropower Complex, located on the Bhagirathi River, is one of India’s largest
hydropower projects.

 Capacity: 1000 MW (Stage I) + 400 MW (Stage II)

 Dam Height: 260 m
 Project Type: Rock-fill embankment dam
 Developer: THDC India Ltd.

2. Purpose of the Project

 Hydropower generation
 Irrigation for UP plains
 Drinking water supply to Delhi & UP
 Flood control and water regulation

3. Environmental Impacts
a) River Ecology Disturbance

 45 km river stretch submerged

 Change in natural flow regime
 Reduction in sediment supply causing riverbed erosion downstream

b) Loss of Forest & Biodiversity

 2600 ha forest submergence

 Loss of Himalayan vegetation: oak, deodar, pine
 Wildlife displaced: Himalayan langur, barking deer, leopard

c) Reservoir-Induced Seismicity (RIS)

 The region falls in Seismic Zone V

 Risk of landslides and induced tremors

d) Water Quality Issues

 Stagnant water → eutrophication risk

 Reduced dissolved oxygen affects aquatic fauna

4. Social Impacts

 > 100,000 people displaced

 Complete submergence of old Tehri town
 Loss of cultural heritage and temples
 Long rehabilitation process, continued protests

5. EIA Findings & Mitigation

a) Catchment Area Treatment

 Construction of check dams

 Slope stabilization to reduce landslides

b) Compensatory Afforestation

 Reforestation in degraded forest lands

c) Seismic Monitoring

 Establishment of continuous geophysical monitoring stations

d) R&R Measures

 Development of New Tehri Township

 Compensation, resettlement, housing, jobs

6. Conclusion
The project illustrates challenges of hydropower in the fragile Himalayas, including seismic
risk and displacement. It sets a benchmark for environmental safeguards for future
Himalayan hydropower projects.

TALCHER THERMAL POWER PLANT (ODISHA – EAST/NORTH REGION LINK)

1. Introduction

The Talcher Thermal Power Station (TTPS) in Angul district of Odisha is one of India’s
older coal-based plants.

 Capacity: 3000+ MW (combined Talcher complex)

 Coal Source: Mahanadi Coalfields
 Developer: NTPC / Tata Power

2. Purpose

 Supply power to northern, western and eastern Indian grid

 Support Odisha’s mining and industrial belt

3. Environmental Impacts

a) Severe Air Pollution

 High SO₂, NOx, and particulate matter

 Respiratory issues among villagers
 Visibility reduction due to fly ash
 Ash-laden air during dry seasons

b) Fly Ash Disposal Problems

 Earlier unlined ash ponds leaked into nearby fields

 Heavy metal contamination: arsenic, mercury, lead
 Soil turned saline and less fertile

c) Water Pollution

 Contaminated ash slurry entering Nandira river

 Thermal pollution due to hot water discharge

d) Land Degradation

 Large area required for ash dykes and coal yards

4. Social Impacts

 Displacement of local tribal communities

 Loss of agricultural land
 Health impacts: asthma, skin diseases
 Increased industrialization changed traditional livelihood patterns
5. EIA Measures & Mitigation

 Modern Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)

 100% fly ash utilization through cement & road industries
 Lining of ash ponds
 Water recycling systems
 Green belt development around plant boundary

6. Conclusion

Talcher shows the long-term cumulative environmental burden of coal-based power,

emphasizing the need for modern emission controls and sustainable energy planning.