Design of fluctuating load

Types of load
Static load
In this type of load the magnitude and direction of the load do not change with respect to time
and the load will be gradually applied.

Fatigue load
In this type of load, the magnitude or direction or both magnitude and direction changes, and
the load will be repeatedly applied. When a material is subjected to fatigue load, it fails at
stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.

● Fluctuating fatigue load - When only magnitude of the load changes

● Completely reversed fatigue load - When only direction of the load changes
● Alternating fatigue load - When both direction and magnitude of the load changes

Stress Concentration
It is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the irregularities present in the
component or due to abrupt changes in the cross-section.

Static stress concentration factor

( )
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 σ𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐾𝑡) = 𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (σ0)
𝑚𝑎𝑥

For a plate with a circular hole:

Maximum nominal stress σ ( 0)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃

𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
=
𝑃
(𝑊−𝑑)×𝑡

Amin = Minimum cross-section = (W-d) x t

W = Width of the plate

d = Diameter of the hole

t = Thickness of the plate

Actual stress due to stress concentration near discontinuity (σact) = Kt × (σ0)max

For stepped circular shaft

(σ0)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃
π
4
2
𝑑

d = Diameter of the smaller shaft

 (σact) = Kt × (σ0)max

P = gradually applied load

Points to Remember:
● The effect of the theoretical stress concentration factor for ductile material can be
neglected because of local yielding but for brittle material stress concentration factor Kt is
a must since there is no yielding in brittle material.
● For a flat plate with an elliptical hole,

𝐾𝑡 = 1 + 2 ( ) 𝑎
𝑏

a = half of the dimension perpendicular to the direction of load

b = half of the dimension parallel to the direction of load

For circular hole (a = b), Kt = 3

Fatigue stress concentration factor

𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
𝐹𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐾𝑓) = 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

Kf = 1 + q(Kt – 1)
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑞) = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

Theoretical stress = Kt × σ0

Actual stress = Kf × σ0

σ0 = Nominal stress

𝐾𝑓×σ𝑜−σ𝑜 𝐾𝑓−1
q= 𝐾𝑡×σ𝑜−σ𝑜
=
𝐾𝑡−1

When a material has no sensitivity q = 0

When a material is fully sensitive q = 1

Reduction in stress concentration

● Providing multiple notches and holes reduces the stress concentration when the member
is in tension.
● Providing fillet radius, undercutting and notches, reduces stress concentration when the
member is in bending
● Drilling additional holes in a shaft reduces stress concentration.
Endurance limit
Endurance limit (Se), also known as fatigue limit is the stress level below which a specimen can
withstand cyclic stress indefinitely without exhibiting fatigue failure.

Modified endurance limit

Se = Ka .Kb .Kc .Kd .S’e

S’e = Endurance limit of standard specimen

Se = Modified endurance limit = Endurance limit of actual machine component

Ka = Surface finish faction (Ka< 1)

Kb = Size factor (As size increases Kb decreases)

Kc = Reliability factor (As Reliability increases Kc decreases)

1
Kd = Modifying factor to consider the effect of stress concentration = 𝐾𝑓

If surface finish is poor, the surface irregularities will act as stress raisers and result in stress
concentration. The endurance limit is reduced due to the introduction of stress concentration.
When the machine part is larger, greater is the probability that a flaw exists somewhere in the
component. The endurance limit reduces with the increasing size of the component.
The greater the likelihood that a part will survive, the more is the reliability factor.

Basic terminologies of fluctuating stress

Range (R) = σmax - σmin
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥−σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
( )
Amplitude σ𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
2
= 2

σ𝑚𝑎𝑥+σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
Mean stress σ𝑚 =( ) 2

σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
Stress ratio = σ𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 σ𝑚𝑎𝑥−σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
Amplitude ratio = =
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 σ𝑚𝑎𝑥+σ𝑚𝑖𝑛

For completely reversed loading condition:

σmin = - σmax
Range = 2 σmax
 Amplitude = σmax
Mean stress = 0

S-N Curve
It is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (σa) versus the number of stress cycles (N)

on a log-log graph.

The S-N curve of steel becomes asymptotic at 106 cycles.

From S-N curve endurance limit can be defined as stress corresponding to 106 cycles

Endurance limit of non-ferrous materials is not definite. For these materials, the curve is
assumed to be asymptotic at 108 cycles.

B = No. of cycles

A = Fatigue strength of a component corresponding to a life cycle of B

(0.9 𝑆𝑢𝑡)−(𝑆𝑒) (0.9 𝑆𝑢𝑡)−(𝐴)

6 3 = 3
(10 )−(10 ) (𝐵)−(10 )

Sut = Ultimate strength

Se = Modified endurance limit

Different proposed criteria for component’s safety

σ𝑚 σ𝑎 1
Soderberg line, 𝑆𝑦𝑡
+ 𝑆𝑒
≤ 𝐹𝑂𝑆

σ𝑚 σ𝑎 1
Goodman line, 𝑆𝑢𝑡
+ 𝑆𝑒
≤ 𝐹𝑂𝑆

2
Gerber line, ( ) σ𝑚
𝑆𝑢𝑡
. (𝐹𝑂𝑆) +
σ𝑎
𝑆𝑒
≤
1
𝐹𝑂𝑆

Modified Goodman line,

σ𝑚 σ𝑎 1
𝑆𝑢𝑡
+ 𝑆𝑒
≤ 𝐹𝑂𝑆

σ𝑚 σ𝑎 1
𝑆𝑦𝑡
+ 𝑆𝑦𝑡
≤ 𝐹𝑂𝑆

Whichever gives the safest result from the above two, consider that one.

Where,

Sut = Ultimate strength

Se = Modified endurance limit

Syt = Yield strength

σa = Stress amplitude
σm = Mean stress
FOS = Factor of Safety
Points to Remember:
● Soderberg line is the most conservative line
● For a given factor of safety, the Soderberg line gives the higher diameter
● For a given diameter Soderberg line gives a low factor of safety