INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW:
FLOW CLASSIFICATION
Adrian Bown
• Fluid flow can be classified in a number of ways.
• The system of greatest use to civil engineers involves
considering flow in terms of two parameters; time and distance.
• This approach gives rise to two main sub-divisions:
i. Consideration of time will determine whether the flow is
steady or unsteady.
Steady or unsteady?
Steady or unsteady?
• Fluid flow can be classified in a number of ways.
• The system which is of greatest use to civil engineering
hydraulics is to consider flow in terms of two parameters; time
and distance.
• This approach gives rise to two main sub-divisions:
i. Consideration of time will determine whether the flow is
steady or unsteady.
ii. Consideration of distance will determine whether the flow
is uniform or non-uniform.
Uniform or
Non-uniform?
River Wharfe, Strid Woods, Bolton Abbey
River Wharfe, Bolton Abbey
Uniform or Non-uniform?
• This system of classification gives rise to 4 flow
conditions;
Steady Flow
Un-steady Flow
Uniform Flow
Non-uniform Flow
• Parameters such as velocity, pressure and depth can be
measured and used to determine which flow condition
exists.
Steady Flow: At any given point within the flow, the velocity
will remain constant over time.
Un-steady Flow: At any given point within the flow, the velocity
will vary with time.
Uniform Flow: At any given instant, the velocity at all points in
the direction of flow will be the same.
Non-uniform Flow: At any given instant, the velocity at different
points in the direction of flow will vary.
• The four previously described conditions are best suited
to controlled environments such as test rigs in
laboratories
• In the natural environment, it is often impractical to
consider ‘time’ and ‘distance’ as separate entities
• For most practical situations, the following four flow
classifications are of more use:
Steady uniform flow Steady non-uniform flow
Flow constant with both
time and distance
Unsteady uniform flow Unsteady non-uniform flow
Steady uniform flow - flow constant with respect to both time and
distance
e.g. constant flow through a pipe of uniform diameter
Steady non-uniform flow - Flow constant with time but varies with
distance
e.g. a constant flow through a tapering pipe or the flow in a river
Unsteady uniform flow - Flow varies with time but not with distance
e.g. pressure surge in a pipe of uniform diameter
Unsteady non-uniform flow - Flow varies for both time and distance
e.g. passage of a flood wave in a natural channel
Steady uniform flow Steady non-uniform flow
Flow constant with both
time and distance
Unsteady uniform flow Unsteady non-uniform flow
Steady uniform flow - flow constant with respect to both time and
distance
e.g. constant flow through a pipe of uniform diameter
Steady non-uniform flow - Flow constant with time but varies with
distance
e.g. a constant flow through a tapering pipe or the flow in a river
Unsteady uniform flow - Flow varies with time but not with distance
e.g. pressure surge in a pipe of uniform diameter
Unsteady non-uniform flow - Flow varies for both time and distance
e.g. passage of a flood wave in a natural channel
Steady uniform flow Steady non-uniform flow
Flow constant with both
time and distance
Unsteady uniform flow Unsteady non-uniform flow
Steady uniform flow - flow constant with respect to both time and
distance
e.g. constant flow through a pipe of uniform diameter
Steady non-uniform flow - Flow constant with time but varies with
distance
e.g. a constant flow through a tapering pipe or the flow in a river
Unsteady uniform flow - Flow varies with time but not with distance
e.g. pressure surge in a pipe of uniform diameter
Unsteady non-uniform flow - Flow varies for both time and distance
e.g. passage of a flood wave in a natural channel
Steady uniform flow Steady non-uniform flow
Flow constant with both
time and distance
Unsteady uniform flow Unsteady non-uniform flow
Steady uniform flow - flow constant with respect to both time and
distance
e.g. constant flow through a pipe of uniform diameter
Steady non-uniform flow - Flow constant with time but varies with
distance
e.g. a constant flow through a tapering pipe or the flow in a river
Unsteady uniform flow - Flow varies with time but not with distance
e.g. pressure surge in a pipe of uniform diameter
Unsteady non-uniform flow - Flow varies for both time and distance
e.g. passage of a flood wave in a natural channel
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW:
VISUALISATION OF FLOW PATTERNS
• Flow of fluids can best be visualised in terms of
streamlines.
• A streamline is constructed by drawing a line which is
tangential to the velocity vectors of a connected
series of fluid particles
EXAMPLE OF A STREAMLINE
USE OF STREAMLINES: TO SHOW THE AIR FLOW OVER
AN AIRCRAFT WING
• A set of streamlines can be drawn to form an
imaginary stream-tube
• In practical terms, certain stream-tubes can be
identified to exist in real life. For example, the
internal surface of a pipe forms a stream-tube.
STREAMLINES
EXAMPLE OF A STREAM-TUBE
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW:
CONCEPT OF IDEAL FLUIDS
Real fluids in motion experiences forces due to a wide range of factors
including;
Gravity
Pressure (Density)
Viscous
Viscosityshear resistance
is resistance to flow; water has a low
Turbulent shear resistance
viscosity compared to treacle. It is caused by
Boundary
internal resistance
friction between both adjacent particles
Surface Tension
and between the liquid and boundaries
Compressibility
These all contribute to make their analysis extremely complex.
• A simplified approach can be made by assuming that the fluid
under consideration is perfect or ‘ideal’
• An ideal fluid is considered to be incompressible
Real fluids in motion experiences forces due to a wide range of factors
including;
Gravity
Pressure
Viscous shear resistance
Turbulent shear resistance
Boundary resistance
Surface Tension
Compressibility
These all contribute to make their analysis extremely complex.
• A simplified approach can be made by assuming that the fluid
under consideration is perfect or ‘ideal’
• An ideal fluid is considered to be incompressible
• It is also considered to be frictionless (has no viscosity)
Real fluids in motion experiences forces due to a wide range of factors
including;
Gravity
Pressure
Viscous shear resistance
Turbulent shear resistance
Boundary resistance
Surface Tension
Compressibility
These all contribute to make their analysis extremely complex.
• A simplified approach can be made by assuming that the fluid
under consideration is perfect or ‘ideal’
• An ideal fluid is considered to be incompressible
• It is also considered to be frictionless (has no viscosity)
• Although no such fluids actually exist, there are some which
behave in a similar manner - water is practically incompressible
and has a low viscosity
• The concept of ideal fluids is important in deriving the
fundamental equations of fluid dynamics
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW:
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID
DYNAMICS
• The three principles investigated in this module are
based on fundamental laws of physics.
• These laws were all initially derived from
consideration of solid bodies but were modified to
deal with the flow of fluid masses.
• This was achieved by using the concept of control
volumes which are, in effect, short stream-tubes.
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID
DYNAMICS:
THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
• The Law of Conservation of Matter states that ‘Matter can
neither be created nor destroyed, though it may be transformed’
(by chemical process for example).
• This implies that in a closed system, unless some form
transformation takes place, the quantity of matter entering a
system must equal the quantity leaving it.
• As no changes of matter are considered in fluid mechanics, the
principle can be reinterpreted as the Conservation of Mass.
Consider a small control volume of fluid within a body of
flowing ideal fluid:
If the flow is steady, during time t,
mass of the flow entering = mass of the flow leaving
As mass = density ( ρ ) x volume ( V ), this can be written as;
V entering V leaving
Over a period of time, say, 1 second, the volume [ units _ m 3 ] can
be expressed as a flow rate, Q , which is ‘ the volume per second ‘ [
units _ m 3/s ]. The equation thus becomes:
Q entering Q leaving
If the fluid is ideal (incompressible) the density will
be constant within the system and the equation
simplifies to;
Q entering Q leaving or Q1 Q2
Q1 Q2
The flow rate, Q (m3/s) = Area ( A ) (m2) x velocity ( V ) (m/s)
Where; A = Cross-sectional area of the control volume [units_m 2]
v = velocity through the control volume [units_ m/s]
A v entering A v leaving or A1 v 1 A2 v 2
A1 v1 A2 v2
River Wharfe, Strid Woods, Bolton Abbey
River Wharfe, Bolton Abbey
Worked example:
The flow rate ( Q ) of a fluid entering a pipeline is 1 m 3 / s. If the
diameter of the pipe reduces from 450 mm to 300 mm over its
length, determine;
• The velocity ( v ) of the fluid when it first enters the pipeline
• The flow rate ( Q ) of the fluid as it exits the pipeline
• The velocity ( v ) of the fluid as it exits the pipeline
d = 450 mm
d = 300 mm
Q1 = 1 m3/s Q2 = ? m3/s
v 1 = ? m/s v 2 = ? m/s
Worked example:
The flow rate ( Q ) of a fluid entering a pipeline is 1 m 3 / s. If the
diameter of the pipe reduces from 450 mm to 300 mm over its
length, determine;
• The velocity ( v ) of the fluid when it first enters the pipeline
• The flow rate ( Q ) of the fluid as it exits the pipeline
• The velocity ( v ) of the fluid as it exits the pipeline
d = 450 mm
Q1 = 1 m3/s
v 1 = ? m/s
Q1
Q A v Q1 A1 v 1 v 1
A1
d2 0.45 m 2
A1 0.159 m
2
4 4
Q1 1m3 / s
v1 6.29 m / s
A1 0.159 m 2
Worked example:
The flow rate ( Q ) of a fluid entering a pipeline is 1 m 3 / s. If the
diameter of the pipe reduces from 450 mm to 300 mm over its
length, determine;
• The velocity ( v ) of the fluid when it first enters the pipeline
• The flow rate ( Q ) of the fluid as it exits the pipeline
• The velocity ( v ) of the fluid as it exits the pipeline
Q1 = 1 m3/s Q2 = ? m3/s
• The Continuity Equation states:
Q1 Q2 Q2 1 m 3 / s
Worked example:
The flow rate ( Q ) of a fluid entering a pipeline is 1 m 3 / s. If the
diameter of the pipe reduces from 450 mm to 300 mm over its
length, determine;
• The velocity ( v ) of the fluid when it first enters the pipeline
• The flow rate ( Q ) of the fluid as it exits the pipeline
• The velocity ( v ) of the fluid as it exits the pipeline
d = 300 mm
Q1 = 1 m3/s Q2 = 1 m3/s
v 1 = 6.29 m/s v 2 = ? m/s
Q2 1m3 / s 1m3 / s
v2 14.15 m / s
A2 0.30 m
2
0.071 m 2
4
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID
DYNAMICS:
THE ENERGY EQUATION
• Based on the First Law of Thermodynamics, the Law
of Conservation of Energy is very similar to the Law
of Conservation of Matter.
• It states that ‘Energy may be neither created nor
destroyed. It may however be transformed from
one form to another’ (for example, potential
energy to kinetic energy).
• Referring to the figure below, a fluid travels a distance, L , in
time, t.
Remark: The mass of this fluid = m 1 1 A 1 L [ i.e. mass =
density x volume ]
Total Energy in the system = Flow work done + Kinetic Energy
+ Potential Energy
• Flow work done p 1 A 1 L
[i.e., force x distance - in our case the force is the total pressure = pressure x area) ]
1 1
• Kinetic Energy m 1
v 1
2
1
A 1
L v 1
2
2 2
• Potential Energy m 1 g z 1 1 A 1 L g z 1
1
Total Energy p 1 A 1 L 1 A 1 L v 1 2 1 A 1 L g z 1
2
Unit weight of the fluid entering the system (KN/m3)
γ1 = m 1 x g 1 A 1 L g
total energy per unit weight of fluid entering the system;
1
p 1 A1 L 1 A1 L v 1 2 1 A1 L g z 1
2
1 A1 L g
total energy per unit weight of fluid entering the system;
1
p1 A1 L 1 A1 L v12 1 A1 L g z1
2
1 A1 L g
The above equation simplifies too;
p1 v1 2
z1
1 g 2g
In accordance with the Law of Conservation of Energy
‘energy may be neither created nor destroyed …’,
Energy entering = Energy leaving
p1 v1 2
p2 v2 2
z1 z2
1 g 2g 2 g 2g
If the fluid is ideal (incompressible), the density remains
constant within the system, i.e. ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ
The energy equation simplifies to;
p1 v1 2
p2 v2 2
z1 z2
g 2g g 2g
‘ which is known as ‘ Bernoulli’s Equation ‘
• In theory, Bernoulli’s Equation should only be used for situations
involving the steady flow of ideal fluids
• Over time, further components have been added to adapt it for
real fluids
• The 2 most common components are;
• H F which represents the frictional head losses as the fluid
travels through pipelines
• H L which represents local head losses at points such as
bends and valves
• Bernoulli’s Equation for real fluids thus becomes;
p1 v1 2
p2 v2 2
z1 z 2 hF hL
g 2g g 2g
Worked example:
Determine the flow rate ( Q ) at the free-end of the 300 mm
diameter pipe at the base of the reservoir
4.00m
300 mm dia. pipe
2.00m End of pipe open
to atmosphere
Velocity at top ofopen
Top of reservoir reservoir
to
1 negligible
atmosphere Pv1 = 0
4.00m Z1 = 5.85 m
300 mm dia. pipe
2.00m End of pipe open
2
Datum – centre of outfall pipe to atmosphere
End of pipe open to
atmosphere P2 = 0
Use Bernoulli’s
v 2 2 Equation to calculate v2 ;
z1 v2 z1 2g
2g p1 v1 2
p2 v22
z1 z2
g 2 g 5.85 m 2 9.81
g m / 2s g 10.71 m / s
2
0.30 m 2
Q2 A2 v 2 10.71 m / s 0.76 m 3
/ s 760 l / s
4
Worked example: X
1.85m
4.00m
300 mm Ø pipe
1.85m
End of pipe open
to atmosphere
• Determine the flowrate velocity at the end of the pipe [apply Bernoulli’s
Equation between the surface of the reservoir and the end of the pipe]
• Using the Continuity Equation, determine the velocity at X
• Determine the pressure at X [apply Bernoulli’s Equation between the surface of
the reservoir and point X]
Worked example: X
1.85m
4.00m
300 mm Ø pipe
1.85m
End of pipe open
to atmosphere
• Determine the flowrate velocity at the end of the pipe [apply Bernoulli’s
Equation between the surface of the reservoir and the end of the pipe]
• Using the Continuity Equation, determine the velocity at X
• Determine the pressure at X [apply Bernoulli’s Equation between the surface of
the reservoir and point X]
Worked example: X
1.85m
1
4.00m Z1 = 5.85 m 300 mm Ø pipe
1.85m
Datum 2
As before use
v 2
Bernoulli’s Equation to calculate v2 ;
z1 v 2v 2 z 1 2 g
2
p
2g 1 p v 2
z1 z2
1 2 2
g 2g 5.85 m 2 g
9.81 m2
/ sg2 10.71 m / s
0.30 m 2
Q2 A2 v 2 10.71 m / s 0.76 m 3
/ s 760 l / s
4
Worked example: X
1.85m
4.00m
300 mm Ø pipe
1.85m
End of pipe open
to atmosphere
• Determine the flowrate velocity at the end of the pipe [apply Bernoulli’s
Equation between the surface of the reservoir and the end of the pipe]
• Using the Continuity Equation, determine the velocity at X
• Determine the pressure at X [apply Bernoulli’s Equation between the surface of
the reservoir and point X]
Worked example: X
1
1.85m
4.00m Z1 = 5.85 m 300 mm Ø pipe
1.85m
2
Continuity Equation:
0.30 m 2
10.71 m / s
A2 v 4
A2 v 2 v 1 10.71 m / s
2
A1 v
0.30 m
1
A1 2
4
Worked example: X
1.85m
4.00m
300 mm Ø pipe
1.85m
End of pipe open
to atmosphere
• Determine the flowrate velocity at the end of the pipe [apply Bernoulli’s
Equation between the surface of the reservoir and the end of the pipe]
• Using the Continuity Equation, determine the velocity at X
• Determine the pressure at X [apply Bernoulli’s Equation between the surface of
the reservoir and point X]
Worked example: X
2
1.85m Z2 = 1.85 m`
1 Datum
4.00m
300 mm Ø pipe
1.85m
As before use Bernoulli’s Equation to calculate v2 ;
p2 vp2 21 v12 p2 pv 2 2
v22
0 z 2 z 2
2
g 2gg
zg1 z2
2g 2 gg 2g
10.71 m / s 2
1.85 m
2 9.81 m / s 2
7.70 m p 2 75.50 kN / m 2