Philosophy Final Exam Study Guide

Mozi

- Mozi says that the greatest of all harms is partiality. Partiality unequal caring.
o The strong hurting the weak.
o The capable hurting the less capable.
- The solution to partiality is impartiality.
- Objections to Impartiality.
o “It’s a great idea, but you can’t possibly apply it.”
 Mozi responds with the question “Would you entrust your family to a partial
or impartial person?” You may condemn impartiality in word, but in deed
you will prefer an impartial person.
o “Impartiality can choose a reliable person, but not a reliable ruler.”
 Mozi responds with the question “Which ruler would subjects follow in an
emergency, a partial or impartial person?”
o “Impartiality is benevolent and right, but how can one practice it?”
 Precedents from history contradict this.
o “Doesn’t impartiality harm filial piety?”
 One wishes for other people to help his parents. So, he will benefit from the
parents of others. Certainly, harming the parents of others will have the
opposite effect.

General Utilitarianism

- The version of utilitarianism that we discussed in class is the version of consequentialism.

- Consequentialism: Good consequences are experiences of pleasure and bad consequences
are experiences of pain.
- Hedonism is the ide to live life for pleasure.
- Psychological hedonism says that pleasure and pain are the only human motivations.
- Ethical hedonism says all and only pleasure is good; all and only pain is bad.

John Stuart Mill

- Mill’s Greatest Happiness Principle stated that actions are right in proportion as they tend to
promote happiness and wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.
- Mill says that happiness is pleasure in the absence of pain. Happiness is the ultimate
criterion to establish what is moral and what is not.
- A higher pleasure requires intelligence. (video games, research, and satisfaction with
challenges)
- A lower pleasure is something that animals are capable of. (eating, drinking, sleeping, sex,
sleep)
- Objections to the Greatest Happiness Principle
o “Utilitarianism makes you animal.”
 He responds with “higher pleasure requires intelligence that only humans
are capable of.” (intellectual/emotional pleasures)
o “Some humans prefer lower pleasures.”
  Mills responds with “You must have experienced both to prefer one or the
other.” Mills feels sorry for those who prefer lower pleasures.”
o “Utilitarianism is too demanding.”
 You must maximize what is best for everyone, motive doesn’t matter.
 Do you spend money on marvel movies or money on children with intestinal
parasites?
o “There is not enough time before action to calculate utility. “
 However, we do have general beliefs of categories and actions. For
example, when you help an elderly person across the street, you don’t need
time to calculate because you have the general belief that it is a good thing
to do.
- Does utilitarianism contradict religion?
o Idea of pleasure vs. religion
 Having sex with your neighbor’s wife is pleasurable, but not the best for
everyone.
 A Tennessee fan says “tusca-loser” and you kill him. Does the pleasure from
this outweigh your pain?
o Utilitarianism also says “don’t murder, don’t cheat, etc.”
o The main concern is that it doesn’t appeal to God’s authority.
- Mill says that we have motivations to obey utilitarianism. We have external sanctions which
are the hope of reward or fear of punishment. Internal sanctions are self-produced feelings
of pleasure for doing the right thing or self-produced feeling of pain when doing the wrong
thing. Internal sanction is more effective.
- Mills proof for Utilitarianism:
o People desire happiness for its own sake.
o If something is desired for its own sake, then it is desirable.
 Therefore, each person’s own happiness is desirable for that person.
o If something is desirable, then it is intrinsically good by definition.
 Therefore, one’s own happiness is an intrinsic good for oneself.
 FALLACY of equivocation: ‘desirable’ means either ‘desired’ or
‘worthy of desire’
o If each person’s won happiness is an intrinsic good for that person, then the general
happiness is intrinsically good for the aggregate of others.
 Therefore, the general happiness is an intrinsic good for the aggregate of
persons.
 FALLACY of composition: what is true of the part is true of the
whole
o “My front bender weighs ten pounds, therefore, my car
weighs ten pounds”
o All other things besides happiness that are desired for themselves are only desired
as parts of the end of happiness.
 Therefore, happiness is the sole intrinsic good.
Smart

- ACT utilitarianism is to perform utilitarianism EXTREMELY. You must always act in a way that
maximizes aggregate utility (compared to any other action.)
- RULE utilitarianism is RESTRICTED. Always act according to whatever rule which would, if
universally followed, maximize aggregate utility (compared to any alternative rule.)
- Smart uses the Desert-Island Problem to demonstrate how the two types of utilitarianism
can give conflicting answers.
o Restricted utilitarianism would say that you should keep your promise.
o Act utilitarianism will say that you should do what causes the greater good.
- You follow act utilitarianism if you now that your cheating won’t affect anyone.
- You follow rule utilitarianism for the greater good.

Kant

- Kant says that the only intrinsic good is good will. Intention is the most important regardless
of action.
- Kant has three propositions.
o An action must be done from duty to have any moral worth. (An action is morally
good because someone did it because they knew I was morally good.)
 Actions from inclination do not have moral worth.
 1. Act from inclination, in accord with duty. wff
 2. Act from inclination, not in accord with duty.
 3. Act from duty, in accord with inclination.
 4. Act from duty, not in accord with inclination.
o An action has its moral worth in the maxim according to which the action is
determined. (Actions that have ulterior motive such as reward or punishment are
not considered morally worthy actions.)
o Duty is the necessity of an action done from respect for the moral laws.
 To have a will is to act according to law.
 Respect is a feeling similar to inclination but separate from it.
- Kant’s Formulations of the Categorical Imperative (categorical imperatives were rules that
you must follow regardless of your desires. Moral obligations are derived from pure reason.)
o Formula of UNIVERSAL law: act only on that maxim (principle of action) through
which you can, at the same time will that it should become a universal law
(something that must always be done).
 I should not steal if I do not believe that everyone should always steal.
o Formula of the end in itself (HUMANITY): Act so that you treat humanity, whether in
your own person or in that of another, always as an end, and never as a mere means
(use only for your benefit).
 You use things as mere means. You should not use humans as mere means.
o Formula of the Law of NATURE: Act as if the maxim of your action were it become
by your will a universal law of nature.
 The principle of your action would become the way the world works.
  Example: A person commits suicide to prevent future suffering. The
principle: “If the future looks bad, I’ll kill myself.”
o Formula of the Kingdom of ends: Act as if you were, through your principles, a law-
making member of society.
 Judge your actions by these principles as if a realm of beings defined by your
unique rationality and autonomy.
o Formula of AUTONOMY: Never act my maxim except such as also be a universal law
and hence such as the will can thereby regard itself at the time as the legislator of
universal law.
 Do you determine the law?

Aristotle

- Aristotle’s Function Argument:

o The highest good of a thing concerns its function.
o The function of a thing concerns what is distinctive of such things.
o Rationality is what is distinctive of human beings and hence its exercise is central to
understanding their function.
o The highest good of a human being involves the rational exercise of the mind.
o The good of a thing is performing its function well, which, for humans, involves
rational activity in accord with virtue.
o The highest good of human beings is a life of rational activity of the mind in accord
with virtue.
- Aristotle on the relationship between virtue and happiness.
o Happiness is acting in accord with virtue.
o Happiness isn’t virtue, but a virtuous activity.
- Aristotle defines moral virtue as a disposition to behave in the right manner as a mean
between extremes of deficiency and excess, which are vices.
o A virtuous person is someone who performs the distinctive activity of being human
well.