Biology Homework Notes

Chapter One:

o The elements that compose water are ordered to form a molecule. Water responds to its
environment based on temperature changes. Ice melts when the environment is warm.
o Although water expands when it freezes, the molecule itself does not grow. Water
temperature changes as the temperature of the environment changes. The amount of
water on Earth is relatively constant and more is not being created or produced by
existing water molecules. Water molecules remain the same throughout time.
o Genetic information in DNA is encoded in sequences of four different molecular "letters".
o Although bacteria and humans inherit different genes, that information is encoded in an
identical chemical language common to all organisms. The chemical names of DNA’s four
molecular building blocks are abbreviated as A, G, C, and T. A typical gene is hundreds to
thousands of chemical letters in length.
o A gene’s meaning to a cell is encoded in its specific sequence of these letters, just as the
message of this sentence is encoded in its arrangement of the 26 letters of the English
alphabet.
o In On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Charles Darwin used evidence to
support the evolutionary view that diverse organisms share common characteristics and that
all species evolved from a common ancestor. He also proposed a process or mechanism by
which species evolved called natural selection.
o All individuals in a population have equal reproductive success is not a feature of natural
selection.
o In natural selection, there is a struggle for existence, and those individuals that inherit
traits that make them better suited to survive in their environment tend to produce
more offspring. Therefore, there is unequal reproductive success among members of a
population.
o "The bulb is dead, so the light will not turn on" represents a hypothesis.
o A hypothesis is an explanation based on an observation and a question. You observe the
light not turning on and thus pose a question to determine why. One possible answer to
that question is that the light bulb is no longer working because it is dead. You then form
a prediction about what will happen if you replace the bulb, form additional
observations when the light continues to not work, and then draw a conclusion after the
breaker has been switched and the light comes on.
o Cells are considered the smallest unit of life because they are the smallest things that have all
the characteristics of life.
o Groups of interacting individuals of one species are called a population.
o Within communities are various populations, which are groups of interacting individuals
of one species. Ecosystems include both living and non-living components. Communities
are composed only of the living components in a particular area, but this includes
multiple species.
o All of the listed questions should be asked of any tentative source of scientific information.
o Is the intent of the source known? Is the information current? Are any experiments
described in enough detail that they could be reproduced? Reliable scientific
 information should additionally be recognized as drawing from known sources of
information, having been authored by a reputable expert, and being free of bias.
o It is false to say that energy from the sun is used up by photosynthetic organisms.
o Producers are photosynthetic organisms that absorb sunlight and convert solar energy
to chemical energy stored in sugars and other molecules. The energy is not used up or
otherwise destroyed but passed to consumers when they ingest these molecules. Energy
flows from producer to consumer and consumer to consumer in an ecosystem. Through
this process some energy is lost from the system as heat. Matter, such as carbon or
nitrogen, is recycled within an ecosystem.
o The metabolism of a living organism is its interconnected network of chemical reactions.
o Within all living organisms, there is a never-ending "chemical square dance" in which
molecules swap chemical partners as they receive, convert, and release matter and
energy.
o A family tree showing evolutionary relationships among species is best viewed as a hypothesis.
o A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a set of observations. A valid hypothesis must
be testable and falsifiable—that is, it must be capable of being demonstrated to be false.
A good hypothesis thus immediately leads to predictions that can be tested. Some
hypotheses (such as ones involving conditions that can be easily controlled) lend
themselves to experiments, or scientific tests. Other hypotheses (such as ones involving
aspects of the world that cannot be controlled, such as ecological issues) can be tested
by making further observations. In the case of a hypothesis of evolutionary relatedness,
further observations can take the form of compared DNA sequences or anatomical
measurements.
o In nature, structure and function are related so that function gives insight into structure.
o Structure and function have a relationship in which changing structure often results in
an altered function and function will often give insight into structure. The concave shape
of a red blood cell provides a large surface area for carrying oxygen and allows for easy
movement through blood vessels. In patients with sickle cell anemia, the cells form a
crescent shape that can block small blood vessels and deprive tissues of oxygen.
o The correct order of levels in biological organization from broadest to most specific is biosphere -
> ecosystem -> communities -> populations -> organisms -> organ and organ system -> tissues ->
cells -> organelles -> molecules and atoms.
o Earth’s biosphere includes all life and all places where life exists. Ecosystems consist of all
living organisms and nonliving components in a particular area. Communities include all
living organisms in an ecosystem. Within communities are various populations, or groups
of interacting individuals of one species. An organism is an individual living thing
composed of organs and organ systems. Tissues are composed of cells and organelles.
Organelles are composed of molecules and atoms.
o A typical aspect of peer review in the process of scientific publication is that revision of the
written descriptions of experiments, or even the experiments themselves, is often required
before a paper is recommended for publication.
o Before experimental results are published in a scientific journal, the research is
evaluated by qualified, impartial, often anonymous experts who were not involved in the
study. This process is intended to provide quality control. After a study is published,
 scientists still often check each other’s claims by attempting to confirm observations or
repeat experiments.
o An emergent property is best described as a property that is not present in the parts but is
present in the whole.
o Emergent properties are those that emerge as complexity increases and are seen when
examining the sum of all the parts, not the individual parts themselves. A set of
molecules in a test tube may be able to carry out some activities associated with life, but
the full set of life’s properties are only found at the next level of complexity, when those
molecules are specifically arranged within the structure of the cell.
o Mutations occur randomly.
o A mutation is an error in a gene. These random errors occur in the genetic code of all
species. The effect of these errors can be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral in regard to
survival and reproduction.

Chapter Lecture Notes:

o Biology is the scientific study of life.

o Life is defined by 7 characteristics.
o 1. Order
o 2. They can regulate themselves (homeostasis—maintaining a steady state)
o 3. They grow and develop
o 4. They use energy
o 5. They respond to the environment
o 6. They reproduce
o 7. Populations evolve
o Biological Themes:
o Theme 1: The scope of life and Emergent Properties
 Life consists of a vertical hierarchy.
 Molecules-> biosphere
o Theme 2: Organisms exchange matter and energy within ecosystems
 Every organism interacts with its environment, and both are affected.
 All O2 in the atmosphere comes from photosynthesis; plants use the CO2 that
humans exhale.
 Nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen are recycled in the ecosystem.
 Energy flows from sunlight to producers to consumers and exits as heat.
o Theme 3: Cells are an organism’s basic unit.
 Cells are the lowest level or organization that can perform all the activities of
life.
 All cells…
 Are enclosed by a membrane.
 Use DNA as the recipe for the process of life.
 Come from pre-existing cells (cell theory)
 2 types of cells: prokaryote and eukaryote
  The functional compartments of cells are called organelles. Like how
humans have organs.
o Theme 4: The continuity of life is based on the information in DNA.
 Chromosomes contain most of a cell’s genetic material in the form of DNA.
 DNA is the substance of genes.
 Genes are the units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to
offspring.
o Theme 5: Diversity is the hallmark of life and the diverse forms of life fit in their
functions.
 There are three main groups of life called domains.
 The 3 Domains are…
 Eukarya (prokaryotic)
 Bacteria
 Archae (prokaryotic)
o Theme 6: Evolution
 Heritable changes in populations over generations.
 Biology’s core theme.
 It is science’s explanation for the unity of life an the diversity of life.
o Taxonomy: Classifying the Diversity of Life:
o Species are grouped into ordered lists of categories.
o Scientists call this taxonomy.
o Each category going up from species is more inclusive than the last.
o Scientific name consists of two parts.
 The first is the genus name.
 The second is the species name.
 It is always written in italics or underlined.
 The first letter of the genus name is always capitalized.
o Taxonomy Classification System: Dear King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain
o Domain
o Kingdom
o Phylum
o Class
o Order
o Family
o Genus
o Species
o Humans:
o Domain: Eukarya
o Kingdom: Animalia
o Phylum: Chordata
o Class: Mamallia
o Order: Primate
o Family: Hominidae
 o Genus: Homo
o Species: Sapiens
o Living Organisms can be Classified:
o Eukryote: organisms with a true nucleus:
 Animalia
 Plantae
 Fungi
o Define science:
o The word science is derived from a Latin verb meaning “to know.”
o It is both a way of knowing and a body of knowledge.
o Two main forms of scientific inquiry:
o 1. Discovery Science: described natural structures and processes.
o 2. Scientific Method: Hypothesis Based Science
 Observations lead to questions
 Questions lead to hypotheses
 Tentative answers to well framed questions
 Should be specific
 Usually “if, then” statements
 Hypotheses are often modified
 Tested by observation or experimentation
o Failure to falsify a hypothesis does not “prove” it.
o Ex. You replace your flashlight bulb. It now works. Supports the hypothesis that your
bulb was burnt out but does not prove it.
o Perhaps the first bulb was inserted incorrectly.
o Theories in Science:
o A theory is a much broader scope than a hypothesis.
o Theories only become widely accepted in science if they are supported by an
accumulation of extensive and varied evidence. (from multiple hypotheses)
o There are only a few theories in biology.
o Theories can be changed, but it is unlikely.
o Research is teamwork.
o For scientific knowledge to be useful it must be made known.
o Articles appear in peer-reviewed journals.
o Written by the scientists that did the work.
o Subjected to intense scrutiny by other scientists.
o Sources for Information vary in quality:
o Peer reviewed journals are the most accurate.
o Science magazines, nonfiction books:
 Science terms translated to generally more understandable language.
 References the peer reviewed journals.
 May include interviews from expert scientists who did not do the work.
o General interest newspapers and magazines:
 Timely coverage, less depth.
 o Evaluating Science:
o Is it based on good observations?
o Who are the scientist and for whom do the work?
 Free of bias?
o Has it been reproduced?
 Is here more than one source that came to the same conclusion?
o Is it recent?
o Scientific discoveries lead to new technologies.
o New technologies advance science.
o The goal of science is to understand natural phenomena.
o The goal of technology is to apply scientific knowledge for some specific purpose.
o They are interdependent.
o Biology is marked by discoveries, while technology is marked by inventions.
o The limits of science:
o Science is not the only way to understand nature.
o Science cannot address every question posed by man.
o Religion and art are other methods used to understand the world we live in.
o A good education includes a broad exposure to diverse ways of looking at the world.

Chapter Two Lecture Notes: Essential Chemistry in Biology

o Matter and Elements:

o Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Matter is found on the earth in three physical states:
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 Matter is composed of chemical elements.
o Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into other substances.
o There are 92 naturally occurring elements on earth.
o All the elements are listed in the periodic table of elements.
o Elements in Organisms:
o 25 elements are essential to life.
o 4 of these (nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen) make up about 96% of the weight in
the human body.
o Most common:
 Hydrogen- H
 Carbon- C
 Nitrogen- N
 Oxygen- O
 Phosphorus- P
  Sulfur- S
o Others
 Sodium
 Potassium
 Iron
 Magnesium
 Calcium
 Chlorine
o Trace elements are essential to life.
o An iodine deficiency causes goiter.
o Iodine is critical for the human diet- it is something our bodies can’t synthesize, and we
have to rely on food to obtain.
o Without enough iodine, a goiter will grow on the thyroid-causing it to enlarge.
o Public health officials, doctors, and scientists worked together to get iodine added to
table salt because most families had access to table salt. (to prevent the widespread
deficiency of goiter that happened in the Appalachians)
o Fluoride in the Water:
o There has been a sharp decline in tooth decay in the last few decades.
o Fluoride containing chemicals have been added to drinking water and dental products.
o The use of fluoride in drinking water illustrated the point that organisms are chemical
systems.
o Some Elements are harmful to Life:
o Ex: Cadmium
 Has been found in some children’s toys
 A known carcinogen
o Compounds:
o Compound: made up of two elements in a fixed ratio.
o Ex: NaCl (salt)
 Made up of sodium (Na) and Chloride (Cl)
o Atoms:
o Each element consists of one kind of atom.
o If you keep breaking down an element into smaller pieces, eventually you will get an
atom.
o An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element.
o The structure of Atoms:
o Proton: positively charged
o Neutron: electrically neutral
o Electron: negatively charged
o The nucleus is the atom’s central core.
 Protons and neutrons are packed tightly into the nucleus.
 The electrons orbit the nucleus. They are held in place by their negative charges
being attracted to the protons.
o Characteristics of Atoms:
 o Elements differ in the number of subatomic particles in their atoms.
o Atomic Number: tells us the # of protons. This determines which element it is.
o Mass number (atomic weight): the # of protons + neutrons (in a neutral atom, the # of
electrons = # of protons)
o Isotopes:
o Isotopes are alternate mass forms of an element.
o They have the same number of protons and electrons.
o Isotopes have a different number of neutrons.
o Ex: Carbon-12 (mass number 12)
o Radioactive Isotopes:
o The nucleus decays, giving off particles and energy.
o 2 uses:
 1. Nuclear power plants – energy
 2. PET Scans – medical
o The nucleus decays, giving off particles and energy.
o Uncontrolled exposure to radioactive isotopes can harm living organisms by damaging
DNA.
 Ex: the April 26, 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident
 Near accident on March 22, 1975 at brown’s ferry in Athens, AL
o Nuclear Plants:
o The United States has a lot of nuclear power plants. The United States has a lot of
nuclear power plants.
o The Process of Science: Can Alzheimer’s Disease Be Detected Early?
o Alzheimer’s gradually destroys a person’s memory and ability to think.
o Radioactive isotopes have many uses in research and medicine.
 Ex: PET scans
 Used to diagnose Alzheimer’s disease before the onset of symptoms.
o Electron Arrangement and the Chemical Properties of Atoms
o Electrons determine how an atom behaves when it encounters other atoms.
o Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom in specific electron shells.
 The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the chemical
properties of an atom.
o Electrons are in orbitals in different energy levels.
o Each orbital has a maximum of 2 electrons
 2 electrons in the first energy level
 8 electrons in the 2nd energy level.
o When atoms react, they try to fill their outer electron shell.
o Most stable form of an atom is when the outer electron shell is complete.
o Atoms can gain or lose electrons.
o Atoms can share electrons.
o Atoms can form bonds with other atoms.
o Energy:
o Energy is the capacity to do work; make a change in matter
 o Joining atoms or breaking up molecules takes energy
o Potential energy- stored energy
 Potential energy is stored in the bonds that hold atoms together.
o Kinetic energy- doing work
 When electrons move to a lower energy level, energy is released.
 Kinetic energy is released when bonds that hold atoms together are broken.
o Chemical Bonding
o Chemical reactions enable atoms to give up or acquire electrons to complete their outer
shells.
 These interactions usually result in atoms staying close together.
 The atoms are held together by chemical bonds.
o Types of bonds that form between atoms:
o Ionic bond: medium strength bond
 Attraction between positive and negative ions
 2Na + Cl2  2Na(+) Cl(-)
 OPPOSITES ATTRACT
 The loss of a valence electron and the attraction to the atom that took it happen
simultaneously.
o Covalent bond: strongest bond
 A covalent bond forms when two atoms share one or more pairs of outer-shell
electrons
 Single bonds: sharing one pair of electrons
 Double bonds: sharing two pairs of electrons
o Hydrogen bond: weakest bond
 Water is a compound in which the electrons in its covalent bonds are shared
unequally.
 The electron spends more time around the oxygen atom.
 This causes it to be a polar molecule, one with opposite charges on
opposite ends.
 Hydrogen bonds are between droplets of water.
 The polarity of water results in weak electrical attractions between neighboring
water molecules.
 These interactions are called hydrogen bonds.
 Unequal sharing of electrons
 In the case of water, electrons of hydrogen spend more time near the oxygen
atom.
 Important in biological molecules
o Chemical Reactions:
o Cells constantly rearrange molecules by breaking existing chemical bonds and forming
new ones.
 Such a change in the chemical composition of matter are called chemical
reactions.
o Water and Life:
o Life on earth began in water and evolved there for 3 billion years.
  Modern life still remains tied to water.
 Your cells are composed of 70-90% water.
o The abundance of water is a major reason earth is habitable.
o Water is ESSENTIAL
o Life only occurs where liquid water is present.
o Water constitutes 6-% of the mass of organisms.
o Water is a solvent.
 Chemical reactions take place in water.
o Water transports substances from one place in the body to another (blood is 90%) water
o Water helps regulated body temperature.
 Absorbs large amount of heat with only modest temperature increase.
o Lower body temperature via evaporation.
o 6 Properties of Earth that Lead to LIFE ON EARTH
o 1. High Heat of Vaporization: energy required to convert one gram of liquid into a gas at
boiling point.
 Water can hold a lot of energy as heat. This helps counter drastic shifts in
temperature, which would be devastating to life on earth.
o 2. Evaporative Cooling: as water evaporates, it cools organisms – sweating, panting,
transpiration.
o 3. Ice Formation: when water freezes, it expands and floats due to the formation of a
crystalline structure.
 Important to aquatic organisms.
o 4. Cohesion an Adhesion:
 Cohesion: attraction between like molecules (water likes to bond to other
molecules = surface tension)
 Adhesion: attraction between different molecules
o 5. Polar molecule:
 Unequal charge distribution
 Electrons spend more time around O than H
 Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with one another and with other
molecules.
 H bonds are weak; constantly broken and reformed.
o 6. Solvent:
 Solution: a liquid that is a homogenous mixture of wo or more substances (salt
water)
 Solvent: the dissolving agent of a solution (water)
 Solute: the substance that is being dissolved (salt)
 Not everything will dissolve in water.
 Only those substances that are ionic or polar will dissolve readily in
water.
 Hydrophilic- water loving (polar)
 Hydrophobic- a substance tat is nonpolar and will not dissolve readily in
water (oils and fats)
  Cells use hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions to allow some things
to enter and exit the cell but not all things to enter or exit the cell.
o Water can ionize.
o Water can become acidic or basic.
o Changes in pH of body fluids can affect…
 How molecules are transported across membranes
 Affect how rapidly chemical reactions take place.
 Affect the shape of proteins.

o Acid Rain: SO3 and NO2 dissolve in water to form sulfuric & nitric acids.
o Effects are severe in areas downwind of large power plants where there are few natural
buffers in soil.
o Acid Rain Effects:
 Direct killing of living things: lowers pH of lakes, streams, soils, thus can kill
organisms directly
 Indirect killing of living things: dissolves toxic metals such as aluminum which
contaminates water systems, thus killing organisms indirectly.
 Some of the minerals required by plants are washed out of the topsoil, while
others reach toxic concentrations.
 Examples of consequences: statue decay, dead trees

Chapter 2 Homework Notes:

 An element’s atomic number indicates the number of protons it has. This number is unique to
the element. Carbon’s atomic number is 6; therefore, carbon has 6 protons. Carbon-12 has six
neutrons but this can only be determined from the atomic mass.
 An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element whereas an
element is a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions.
o Elements and atoms are related because each element is composed of one kind of atom
and atoms in one element are different from atoms in other elements. The atoms that
make up an element are unique to that element.
 Since water expands when it freezes, ice is less dense than water. This is why ice floats on liquid
water. Water has high cohesion as a result of hydrogen bonding. Water is also an excellent
moderator of temperature.
 Due to its high pH value of about 12, bleach is a basic solution. This means that it has a high
concentration of OH- ions compared to H+ ions.
 Changes in pH can be harmful to organisms because most are sensitive even to slight changes in
pH. Maintaining the proper pH is extremely important. Buffers help to maintain proper pH by
removing excess H+ in acidic solutions and donating H+ in basic solutions.
 The cohesion of water is due to the relationship between its structure and function. The
structure of the molecule allows for hydrogen bonds to form, which cause water molecules to
stick together.
 An acid releases H+ in a solution.
o In aqueous solutions, most of the water molecules remain intact. However, in some
solutions, the water molecules will break apart into OH- and H+. Based on the
concentration of these ions, you can have an acid or a base. Acids occur when there is a
higher concentration of H+ ions or when H+ ions are being released.
 Water forms covalent bonds and is polar.
o Covalent bonds are the bonds that link hydrogen to the oxygen atom in water. In these
bonds, electrons are shared, which leaves areas of the molecule slightly negative
(oxygen) and slightly positive (hydrogen) because there is an uneven distribution of
electrons. These cause weak hydrogen bonds to form between the slightly negative
oxygen and slightly positive hydrogen atoms.
 Your body is approximately 65 percent oxygen.
o Carbon makes up the next highest percentage at 18.5 percent. There are many other
elements in your body that are important to proper physiological functioning but some
are found in just trace amounts.
 In ionic bonds, electrons are transferred. In hydrogen bonds, weak attractions are formed due to
partially charged regions of a compound. It is in covalent bonds that electrons are shared.
 Matter is anything that occupies spaces and has mass whereas mass is a measure of the amount
of material in an object. Matter can occur in three forms: solid, liquid, or gas. An element is a
substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions.
 Isotopes are elements that can exist in different forms. These have the same number of protons
and electrons but can have different numbers of neutrons, which change their mass. Some
isotopes can be radioactive but not all are.
 Although radiation exposure can be detrimental to your health by causing mutations in your
DNA, radiation is most dangerous when exposure is uncontrolled and covers most or all of your
body. When radiation is targeted, it can be used as a medical therapy to treat isolated cancerous
tumors and other diseases such as Grave’s Disease.
 The mass of an atom is the sum of its protons and neutrons. The weight of an electron is
negligible and is not included in the mass number.
 Water sticks together due to the hydrogen bonds that form between the oxygen in one molecule
and the hydrogen in another molecule. It is due to their cohesion that water holds itself together
and has high surface tension.
 Protons and neutrons are both found within the nucleus of an atom.
o Since like charges repel each other, protons do not bind to other protons.
 Because of hydrogen bonding, water has a stronger resistance to temperature change than most
other substances.
o The formation of hydrogen bonds between neighboring molecules of water makes it
more resistant to temperature change. When water is heated, the heat energy first
disrupts hydrogen bonds. Only after enough of the hydrogen bonds have been broken
can heat cause individual water molecules to move faster, thus increasing the
temperature.
o Ionic bonding occurs between charged ions. Water is not a charged ion. Covalent
bonding holds the atoms within individual water molecules together and contributes to
the polarity that leads to hydrogen bonding, but covalent bonding alone does not
 explain why water has a stronger resistance to temperature change than most other
substances.
 The water will not overflow because you are not adding more water molecules. In fact, the solid
form of water (ice) takes up more space than the liquid form. So, as the ice melts, you are able to
fit more water molecules into the glass. Thus, the water would be at the same height or would
be slightly lower.

Chapter 3 Lecture Notes:

o The Organic Molecules of Living Organisms

o Why is carbon considered the building block of life?
o Carbon:
 Comprises 18% of the body by weight
 forms four covalent bonds
 can from single or double bonds
 can build micro- or macromolecules
 carbon molecules vary in length
 carbon skeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in location
 carbon skeletons may be arranged in rings
o What are the molecules of life? (macromolecules)
o Know the name, structure, function, and examples
o Carbohydrates
o Lipids
o Proteins
o Nucleic Acids
o They are made by linking smaller identical parts into larger units.
o In other words, cells link subunits called monomers into polymers.
o Polymers
o A large molecule made from many similar small molecules called subunits or monomers
o How does your body build polmers?
o Through Dehydration Synthesis
 Dehydration is the removal of water
 Dehydration synthesis: removes equivalent of a water molecule to link
molecular units, requires energy, builds macromolecules from smaller
subunits.
o How does your body break down polymers?
o Through hydrolysis reaction
 Hydrolysis Reaction: adds the equivalent of water molecule to break apart
macromolecules, releases energy.
o Monomer #1: Carbohydrates
o 1. Monosaccharide (1 sugar)
 1 sugar also called simple sugars; main sugar of the cell
 Glucose: found in sports drinks
 Fructose: found in an apple
 o 2. Disaccharide (2 sugars)
 2 simple sugars; two monosaccharides linked together by dehydration
synthesis.
 Sucrose: glucose + fructose (table sugar)
 Two 6-carbon monosaccharides (glucose and fructose) are joined
together by dehydration synthesis, forming sucrose
 Maltose: glucose + glucose (seedling sugar)
 Lactose: glucose + galactose (milk sugar)
 Some people have trouble digesting lactose, a condition called “lactose
intolerance”
 People who are lactose intolerant do not produce enough of the enzyme
called “lactase.” Their cells cannot break down and absorb lactose.
o 3. Polysaccharide (3 or more sugars)
 Thousands of monosaccharides joined in chains and branches; also called
complex carbs
 Starch: made in plants, stores energy (ex: potato)
 Glycogen: made in animals, stores energy (ex: muscle)
 Cellulose: made in plants, structural support (ex: plant stalks and celery)
 Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on earth.
 Major component of wood.
 Humans don’t get nutrition from cellulose but need it in our diet
(toothbrush for intestines)
 Animals survive on grazing diets because they have prokaryotes in their
digestive tract that can break down cellulose.
o Monomers are sugars.
o Polymers are polysaccharides.
o Structure: Contains C, H, O in ratio of 1:2:1
o Function: Provide structural support to plants.
o Function: Store energy.
o Example: animals-glycogen, plants-starch
o Macromolecule #2: Lipids
o Types of lipids:
 Triglycerides (fat)
 Structure: composed of two types of molecules: glycerol and fatty acids
 Glycerol- 3-C with hydroxyl functional groups
 Fatty acid: long chains of C & H (14-22 C) with a carboxyl group (C-O-O-
H) on one end.
 Function:
o energy storage: higher amount of energy per gram in fats than
in carbohydrates- animals, seeds
o insulation of warm-blooded animals
o cushion internal organs
 Phospholipids (cell membranes)
 Structure: contain glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate
  Part of molecule associates with water, part of it does not
 Function: phospholipid bilayers form structure of most biological
membranes
 Steroids (hormones)
 Steroids have three 6-sided carbon rings and one 5-sided carbon ring.
 Functions:
o Stabilize cell membranes- cholesterol.
o Chemical messengers- sex hormones, (testosterone, estradiol)
o Fatty Acids
 Saturated: no double bonds; solid at room temperature; comes from animals
(meat, butter, cheese)
 Unsaturated: contain 1 or more double bonds; liquid at room temperature;
comes from plants (plant oils, margarine, omega-3)
o Trans Fats
 During the man-made process of partially hydrogenating fats, a different type of
double bond is created- a trans bond.
 These bonds are unintentional by-products.
 These bonds almost NEVER occur naturally.
 The human body is not designed to digest them.
 Molecules with trans-bonds are called trans-fats.
o What are Processed Foods?
 Manufacturers take unsaturated fats and partially hydrogenate them to make
them solid. This is “processing” foods. Lol
 This delays the time it takes for food to go bad, aka longer shelf life.
 Plant fats inexpensive to grow and sell so more profit to farmers and food
distributors.
 Example: margarine is not from animals, so it has no cholesterol, but like corn
oil, it is solid.
 Processed foods with these hydrogenated fats are not healthy.
o Macromolecule #3: Proteins
 5 major types of proteins:
 Structural
 Storage
 Contractile
 Transport
 Enzymes
 Monomers of proteins: amino acids
 All proteins are constructed from a common set of 20 amino acids.
 Structure: a central carbon atom bonded to four covalent partners in
which three of those attachment groups are common to ll amino aids
 The side group (or R group) is the only thing that is different in alal 20
amino acids.
 Polymers of proteins: polypeptides
  The carboxyl group pf amino acid is joined to the amino group of
another.
 Dehydration reaction
 The resulting bond is called a peptide bond.
 Every amino acid is important:
 A change in an amino acid can affect protein configuration and cause a
malfunction of the protein.
 Ex: sickle cell anemia is due to a mutation that leads to a different amino
acid in position 6 of the hemoglobin polypeptide
 Protein Conformation/Shape
 Proteins form 3-D shapes that are important to for how the proteins
function.
 4 levels of protein structure
 What determines protein shape?
 Denaturation: protein unravels and loses shape
 Prions: misfolded proteins
o Associated with Alzheimer, mad cow, Parkinson’s.
o Mad Cow Disease
 A prion disease
 Prions: infectious proteins that can become improperly
folded proteins
 The infectious and normal norms do not differ in amino
acid sequences.
 Instead, their shapes are radically different.
o You will be asked to read and answer questions about nutrition labels.
o Macromolecule #4 Nucleic Acid
 Structure: polymers of nucleotides
 Each nucleotide has three parts:
 A five-carbon sugar
 A phosphate group
 A nitrogenous base
 Function:
 1. Provide the directions for building proteins
 2. Include dna and rna
 3. Are the genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents
 DNA: Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
 Structure: double helix
 2 strands of dna joined together; bases (A, T, C, G) form along one DNA
strand and are hydrogen-bonded to bases
 A (adenine) and T (thymine)
 G (guanine) and C (cytosine)
 RNA= ribonucleic acid
 RNA structure – single-stranded
 RNA uses the sugar ribose and the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
Chapter 3 Homework Notes:

 Cholesterol is associated with cardiovascular disease; however, cholesterol is necessary for

proper cell function and hormone production. Cholesterol is found in your cell membranes and
forms the base for hormones such as testosterone and estrogen. Steroids are lipids that have a
different structure and function than fats.
 Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structures. Glucose
and fructose are isomers, both having the formula C6H12O6.
 Both RNA and DNA store genetic information; however, the structure of DNA is a double helix
whereas RNA is a single helix. DNA and RNA both have nucleotides as their monomers; however,
instead of including the base thymine, RNA has uracil. Lastly, RNA has ribose sugar whereas DNA
has deoxyribose sugar.
 Carbohydrates are mostly hydrophilic, meaning that they dissolve in water.
