CAPE CHEMISTRY UNIT 1- CONCISE NOTES
MODULE 1
TOPIC 1: ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. The matter is made up of indivisible particles known as atoms.
2. The properties of all the atoms of a given element are the same including mass. This can
also be stated as all the atoms of an element have identical mass while the atoms of
different elements have different masses.
3. Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds.
4. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed. This implies that during chemical reactions, no
atoms are created nor destroyed.
5. The formation of new products (compounds) results from the rearrangement of existing
atoms (reactants).
6. Atoms of an element are identical in mass, size and many other chemical or physical
properties, but atoms of two-different elements differ in mass, size, and many other
chemical or physical properties.
Drawbacks of Dalton’s Atomic Theory of Matter
• It was proved that an atom is not indivisible. As an atom can be subdivided into
electrons, protons and neutrons. But remember that atom is the tiniest particle that
takes part in a chemical reaction.
• According to Dalton Atomic Theory, atoms of an element are identical in mass, size
and many other chemical or physical properties. But, practically we observe that
atoms of several elements differ in their densities and masses. These atoms with the
different masses are known as isotopes. For example, Chlorine (Cl) has 2 isotopes
with the mass numbers of 35 and 37.
• Also, according to Dalton Atomic Theory, atoms of two-different elements differ in
mass, size and many other chemical or physical properties. However, this is not
correct for all situations. For example, Argon (Ar) and Calcium (Ca) atoms, each
have an atomic mass of 40 amu. These atoms with similar atomic masses are isobars.
• According to Dalton Atomic Theory, when atoms of different elements (atoms of two
or more elements) combine in simple whole number ratios, we get chemical
compounds. But this is not true in case of complex organic compounds.
• Dalton Atomic Theory fails to explain the existence of allotropes. This implies that
the Dalton atomic theory fails to explain the differences in properties of charcoal,
graphite, and diamond (allotropes of carbon).
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory also suggested that an atom is the smallest part of an atom
that can take part in a chemical reaction. Some postulates of this theory remain valid
even in today’s modern chemical thoughts. The atomic structure model proposed by
indeed proves to be a significant, steppingstone in chemistry. It forms the base for
modern atomic theories and quantum mechanics.
Structure of the Atom:
Behavior of subatomic particles in an electric and magnetic field:
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different
mass numbers (Different number of neutrons).
1
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): Mass of one atom of the element relative to 12 the mass of
one atom of the carbon-12 isotope.
Relative Isotopic Mass: Mass of an atom of a specific isotope of the element relative to
the mass of the standard carbon-12 isotope.
Relative Molecular Mass: (Mr): Sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in its
molecular formula.
Calculation of Relative Atomic masses
Radioactivity
Uses of Radioisotopes
Carbon-14 : Used to determine the age of plants and fossils.
Gamma Rays: Used to kill cancer cells.
Iodine-131: Used as tracers to treat thyroid disorders.
Plutonium-238: Used in heart pacemakers.
Cobalt-60: Used to detect leaks in pipelines
Energy Quanta
Electrons in atoms have fixed amount of energy associated with them.
This fixed amount of energy is called a quantum of energy.
The energy is discrete or quantised.
Electrons are arranged in energy levels which are quantised.
When an electron absorbs a quantum of radiation it can move from the ground state to an
excited state.
When an excited electron falls to a lower energy level a quantum of radiation is given
out; electron moves to a lower energy level
EMISSION SPECTRA AS EVIDENCE FOR DISCRETE ENERGY LEVELS
• The electron in the ground state energy level of the hydrogen atom receives energy in
the form of heat or electricity and is promoted to a higher energy level.
• It cannot remain at a higher level (excited state) for very long and falls back to a lower
level.
• When the electron falls back down (relax) it must lose the energy difference between
the two energy levels. This loss of energy is performed by releasing electromagnetic
energy in the form of infrared, visible light or ultraviolet radiation.
• Movement of electrons between the shells is called electron transitions.
• When electron transitions take place the energy emitted can be detected and its
wavelength measured. This provides information about the relative energies of the
shells.
• In the hydrogen atom (the simplest case with only one electron to 'jump' between
shells) the energy emitted appears in several series of lines, each series corresponding
to electrons falling back to different levels. This is shown in the diagram below.
• The Lyman series corresponds to transitions between the higher shells and the lowest
shell (ground state). The energy of these transitions produces radiation in the ultra-
violet region of the spectrum
• The energy shells are usually given a letter 'n' to describe the specific energy level.
The lowest level is n=1, the second level is n=2 etc.
• Transitions from higher shells (n>2) to n=2 produce radiation in the visible region of
the spectrum. It can be seen by splitting the light using a prism or diffraction grating
and projecting it onto a screen.
Convergence:
As the energy levels increase in energy they get closer together. In other words level 2 and level 3
are further apart than level 3 and level 4. The levels converge towards a limit.
Transitions that occur in any series must also converge towards a high energy limit, as the largest
transition is between the highest energy level and the level that is characteristic of the specific
series.
The highest level is sometimes referred to as the 'infinite' level, as the levels get so close together
where they converge that they are impossible to count.
Energy Levels, Sub levels
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
When we are filling electrons, we fill in the 4s before the 3d. This is because the 4s is
lower in energy than the 3d. When the 4s has electrons, it moves to a higher energy
level ie higher than 3d.
When we are losing electrons, we lose from the 4s orbital first and then from the 3d
orbitals.
This is so because, when the 4s orbital has electrons it has a higher energy than the
3d orbitals.
Note exceptions to electronic configuration of Cr and Cu. The half filled and fully
filled d orbitals are more stable configuration due to even distribution of charge.
Ionization energy
Minimum Energy needed to remove the outermost electron from an atom in one
mole of atoms of an element in its gaseous state to form one mole of gaseous ions.
Factors influencing first ionization energy
Atomic Radii: The distance between the nucleus and the outermost electrons. The further
the outer electrons are from the nucleus, the less attractive force there is between them
and the nucleus, hence the lower the ionisation energy.
Nuclear Charge( Zeff): The higher the nuclear charge, the greater the number of protons
and hence greater the attractive force between the nucleus and outer electrons and so the
more energy needed to remove the electrons. Ionisation energy increases with increasing
nuclear charge
Shielding: Electrons in full inner shells reduce the attractive force between the nucleus
and the outer electrons. The greater the number of full inner shells, the greater the
shielding and the lower the ionisation energy.
Ionization energy data- providing evidence for sub shells.
Aluminium Atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Evidence for Energy Levels
Jump between 3rd and 4th ionisation energies is evidence of the energy levels within the
atom.
Evidence for sub levels
Large increase in ionisation energy between 9th and 10th values occurs because the 10th
electron is removed from the 2s sub-level which experiences a stronger electrostatic
attraction from the nucleus.
Deriving electronic configuration of an element from IE
• The Neil’s Bohr Model can be used to determine the electronic configuration in terms of
s, p, d and f sub-shells
• The number of gentle slopes between larger jumps on the successive ionisation energy
graph tells you the number of shells in the atom.
• The number of electrons removed along each gentle slope gives the number of electrons
in that shell (energy level)