CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
In 1984, the Malaysian government requested the National Coastal Erosion Study
(NCES). According to the survey, which was finished in 1986, of Malaysia's 4,809
km of shoreline, around 1,390 km (or 29%) had experienced erosion of varied degrees
of severity. Coastal erosion sites have been divided into the following three categories
based on the rate and imminentness of erosion as well as the economic values of the
threatened human activities [10].
i. category 1; - Critical - Areas suffering from coastal erosion where shore-based
facilities are in imminent danger of loss or damage;
ii. category 2 - Significant - Areas where shore-based facilities are expected to be
endangered within 5 to 10 years if no remedial action is taken;
iii. Cafegory 3 - Acceptable - Erosion areas that are generally undeveloped with
consequent minor economic loss if erosion continues unabated.
2.2 Geological
Geology explains the processes that have shaped the structure of the Earth
both above and below the surface. Additionally, it offers resources for figuring out the
absolute and relative ages of rocks found in a specific area as well as for outlining the
histories of those rocks. Geologists can both show the age of the Earth and chronicle
the Earth's whole geological history by combining these technologies. The main
source of evidence for plate tectonics, the evolution of life, and historical climatic
conditions on Earth is geology [11].
Geology is crucial for practical purposes such as the discovery and
exploitation of minerals and hydrocarbons, the assessment of water resources, the
comprehension of natural dangers, the solution of environmental issues, and the study
of previous climate change. Geology is a significant academic field that is essential to
both geological engineering and geotechnical engineering [11].
2.3 Morphology
The shape and spatial organisation of the landscape is known as morphology.
Water flow, soil physical and chemical composition, and vegetation productivity are
all directly impacted by landscape morphology. In human geography, social structures
and cultural worlds are enfolded in the material construction of the environment, its
shaping and remaking. The influence of beach morphology (width, height, and
volume) in influencing the dissipation of wave energy and the degree of
cliff-toe/shore platform protection against erosion has been taken into consideration in
many cliff erosion and rocky coast geomorphological investigations [12][14].
Due to the close proximity of breaking waves to the cliff face, where waves
break close to the cliff on a steeply sloping profiles and farther offshore on wider,
more gently sloping profiles, nearshore shore platform profile gradient and beach
sediment thickness controlled the extent of coastal erosion [13].
2.4 Factors of coastal erosion
As a result of the action of waves, currents, tides, wind-driven water,
waterborne ice, or other storm-related effects, coastal erosion is the loss or
displacement of land as well as the long-term removal of silt and rocks along the
coastline. Over a temporal scale of tides, seasons, and other transient cyclic events,
the coastal retreat can be quantified and characterised. Hydraulic action, abrasion,
impact, corrosion by wind and water, and other forces, natural or manmade, can all
contribute to coastal erosion.
2.4.1 Natural causes of coastal erosion
The actions of winds, waves, and currents are examples of natural processes
that produce coastal erosion. Rapid, brief, daily, seasonal, or annual episodic
phenomena including storm waves, storm surge, overwash, and rip currents can cause
coastal erosion. This could happen quickly (from a few hours to a few days) or
gradually over time (FEMA, 1997). The table below offers a thorough summary of
the natural factors that influence changes in coastline (NAS, 1990).
2.4.2 Human causes of coastal erosion
Interference with coastal structures
The most frequent reason for coastal erosion is the interference of coastal
constructions with littoral transport. The structure's presence has a number of effects,
including:
Sand is trapped at the structure's upstream side, which lowers the delivery of sand
to the nearby coasts. Large constructions may also cause (initial) erosion on the
upstream side, but this primarily affects the lee side.
Sand loss due to deep water.
Sand entrapment in outer harbours and entrance channels. After being removed
by dredging, sand is frequently dumped in deep water.
The structures, which may cause this type of erosion, are:
Groynes and similar structures perpendicular to the shore.
Ports (see also Port breakwaters and coastal erosion).
Inlet jetties at tidal inlets and river mouths.
detached breakwaters.
Coastal reclamations.
Seawalls and revetments.
In order to safeguard the coast, seawalls and revetments are frequently built
along coastal areas. In addition to being vertical walls, geotubes, smooth-sloping
stone revetments, or rip-rap concrete or rock, seawalls can also be created as sea
dikes.
The effect of seawalls on coastal erosion is influenced by a number of factors,
including the structure's position within the coastal profile, littoral drift, and the
evolution of the natural beach. The majority of seawall construction occurs along
deteriorating coastlines, and their main purpose is to halt erosion. However, the
erosion process continues and might even be accelerated seaward of the structure.
There won't be any beach in front of the seawall after a while. At that point, the
seawall's toe will be swept by the waves, and if the toe is not adequately protected, the
structure will collapse. This is called ‘active erosion’ and usually will increase with
decreasing beach width.
Left: At the Bardsea seawall on the macrotidal Morecambe Bay (UK), there is a low,
eroding beach. In order to prevent scouring by waves, the seawall's toe has needed to
be reinforced. Photo credit: Stephen Mackenzie.
Right: At the Le Dicq (Island of Jersey) seawall's toe, a trench had been scooted and
filled with rock. Photo credit: HR Wallingford.
Sand and Coral Mining, and Maintenance Dredging
By depleting the shore of its sediment resources, the mining of sand and gravel
along beaches and in the surf zone would induce erosion. Sand is frequently lost from
the littoral budget while tidal inlets, harbours, and navigation channels are being
maintained since, unless otherwise specified by law, the sand is typically thrown at
deep water. Coastal erosion and beach deterioration are also brought on by coral
mining and other activities that harm the coral reefs' natural defences, such as fishing
with explosives or other noxious materials. As a result, the reef stops serving as a
barrier and stops producing carbonate sand.
2.5 Vulnerability
Vulnerability is the ability of the coastal system to find a new equilibrium in
the new environmental conditions. For example, vulnerability is the sensitivity of the
coastal zone to changes, like the set back of the shoreline. The percentage of artificial
coastline and the proportional change in sea level are the key factors influencing the
vulnerability to coastal erosion, however their values are relatively minor. The area
with low vulnerability is less impacted by human activity, and its level of
vulnerability remains stable [15].
The variables employed can be divided into two groups:
(i) The geological factors relating to coastal geomorphology, historical changes in the
coastline, and regional coastal slope
(ii) The variables that reflect maritime processes, such as tidal range, mean significant
wave height, and relative sea level rise.
2.6 Evolutionary trend
The shorelines are always changing. By transporting, depositing, and eroding
material, winds, waves, tides, and currents continuously erode, move, and change
coasts. Knowing how a specific coast has changed through time and how it might
change going forward depends on understanding the rates and patterns of shore
change.
The Shoreline Studies Program at Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS)
is working locally to record how the shore zone has changed since 1937, locality by
locality. Beginning that year, aerial photography was obtained throughout the
majority of the Bay region; this imagery can be used to evaluate the geomorphic
nature of coastline alteration. Aerial photographs demonstrate how the coastline has
changed, including the extent to which beaches, dunes, bars, and spits have expanded
or degenerated, how barriers have been breached, which inlets have changed
directions, and how one shore type has replaced another or, in some cases, not
changed at all. Although shoreline development is a natural process, oftentimes
human influences such as shore hardening or inlet stabilization come to dominate a
particular shore stretch. In addition to documenting historical shorelines, the change
in shore positions along the rivers and larger creeks of the Bay has been quantified
[16].
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction