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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN INDIA

As quoted by Bacon (1989) reading makes a full man; conference a ready man;
and writing an exact man. Conversing in English earns immense weight in the present
age of globalization. Formally in India, English was positioned as an associate/official
Language. After Hindi, it is the most commonly spoken language in India Prof. Jacob
Tharu says, "English is no longer some remote but a powerful mystery, lying hidden in
the world of textbooks and examination". At the time of India‘s independence, English
was the only functional Lingua Franca in the country. We all know, English is the most
widely spread language in the world. Proficiency in English opens a window for vast
opportunities. English opens doors of the world of effective communication as a large
part of world‘s population understands and uses this language for pushing ahead in the
career, English helps a lot by facilitating to express our opinions and thoughts freely.
English is also very important in some of the major faculties in India viz legal, financial,
educational, business and so on, as communication in all major sectors happens only in
English.

This chapter sketches a brief history of the English language in India and the
status of English language teaching in India. It also describes the problem in the writing
skills of Jatapu community in Andhra Pradesh, India. It also discusses the underlying
principles and goals of the present study, the purposes of teaching English as a second,
and finally details the scope of the present research. The organization of the study is
outlined in the final section of this chapter.

1.2 THE INDIAN LANGUAGE LEARNING CONTEXT

With its 1635 rationalized mother tongues in India, of which only 47 are used as
mediums of instruction. ―Language identity regions… Every state apart from the
dominant state language has from one to six outside or minority languages which are
spoken by more than 20 people per 1000.‖
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As linguistically pluralistic communities are prevalent throughout the country

where half of the districts have minority speech groups exceeding 20% of the district
population, the Indian sociolinguistics scene is characterized by extreme heterogeneity
and layered by hierarchical patterns of language use influenced by socio-cultural and
political factors like caste, religion family, education, work, hierarchy, sex etc. In terms
of the declaration of mother tongue to a major regional language, fluidity characterizes
the language identity. Learners of English in India have realized that English is necessary
to talk about their identity their languages their literature their values and culture so that
the world outside will know who they are. This becomes one of the important objectives
of teaching English in India.

In India individuals as well as communities are often required to adapt to

linguistic diversity by developing multitude speech identities which play complementary,
but not conflicting roles in groups or individual‘s self-characterization capacity and
necessity. The use of multiple languages requires individuals and communities in India to
have multiple identities which they sometimes exhibit by selective code-switching. Code
mixing is also used as a strategy to express multiple identities. It should be pointed out
here that such patterns of language use in multilingual and multicultural set up give rise
to a functionally meaningful pluralism.

While investigating the socializing function of languages one should take into
account the assertion of Li Wei (2000: 12)

―Language is a social notion: it cannot be defined without reference to its speakers and
the context of its use. Language boundaries are boundaries between groups of people as
language forms contact between people. Thus language is not simply a system of sounds
words and sentences. Languages also have a social function both as means of
communication and as a way of identifying social groups.‖

―Cultural Language‖ pattanayak (1981) suggested that when one speaks mother
tongue at home and dominant language at school this is usually termed as cultural
language. The early socialization of a child occurs at different stages. It is through his
mother tongue that a child perceives his surrounding world. So an individual‘s exposure
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to language only happens through his surroundings. Nativity and culture play a very
crucial role in determining his/her language learning capability.

1.3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN INDIA

As Richards (2001) stated, English is no longer viewed as the property of the

English-speaking world but it is an international commodity sometimes referred to as
English an International Language. According to N. Krishnaswamy and [Link] (1994)

The three goals of teaching English in contemporary India are:

1. Mobility (i.e., the utilitarian function of English as the language of opportunity);

2. Modernization (i.e. the interactive function of English as the ‗window of the world‘
and as an instrument of change); and

3. The projection principle i.e., the interpretive function of English as an international

language to project our identity and values and to promote better human understanding.

[Link] and [Link] (1994) there is a great demand for English; it has
a lot of ‗surrender value‘ and learners want to cash in on that. Unfortunately, our
curriculum designers have not realized this and that is why those who are profit-minded
are doing business selling English.

There are 234 identifiable mother tongues and 22 major languages in India.
Recorded are a total of 1635 mother tongues according to 2001 census. This multi-lingual
situation is the product of India‘s long history, and the basic structure of the Indian
languages is thus made up of Aryan and Dravidian families. Aryans form the biggest of
the language groups in India, accounting for 75 percent of the entire population. The
important languages of this group are Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi,
Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Urdu. The Dravidian family of languages
accounts for 25 percent of the entire population. The important languages in this group
are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam.

English came to India with the English. The prime focus being trade, the English
did not bother to encourage the teaching of English, but with them had come some
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missionaries which had come along started schools where English was taught as one of
the subjects. Macaulay at a stroke made English the language of government, education,
and advancement, at once a symbol of imperial rule and of self-improvement. The British
were afraid of losing their hold on colonies as in America which is why they did think of
encouraging the teaching of English. The reason why the English initially did not think of
encouraging the teaching of English was that they feared that they might lose their
colonies in India as they did in America. This fear was expressed by Randle Jackson, a
member of the House of Commons, who said, ―We lost our colonies in America by
imparting our education there; we need not do so in India too.‖ However, after the battle
of Plassey in 1757, the situation began to change. The traders found themselves in the
position of rulers. In order to have full command over the people whom they had begun
to govern they decided to establish educational institutions. [Link] and
[Link] (1994) The important landmark in the spread of English education in colonial
India (1854) of Sir Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control known as
Wood‘s Dispatch, it emphasized the need for using both English and the vernaculars for
the diffusion of European knowledge. Two such institutions were Calcutta and
Madorassa started in 1781 and Benares Sanskrit College founded in 1791. They were the
institutions of classical learning, but they also made a provision for the teaching of
English. In this way, the teaching of English in India began with the British rulers. The
importance of English went on increasing with the passage of time. A great demand for
the spread of English education began to rise from different parts of the country. To meet
this demand, Raja Ram Mohan Roy established the Hindu College in 1817. Soon,
thereafter the missionaries opened a number of schools and colleges in which the
teaching of English was given utmost importance.

In 1853, the year when the Company‘s charter was renewed once more, under the
pressure of government personnel to manage the widening domain of its ―India
activities‖, the company decided to open up its highest Civil Service appointments to
Indians by allowing them to appear for a competitive examination set up for this purpose.
As a follow up of Wood‘s Dispatch of 1854, the first formalized and formulated
education policy statement of the East India Company; three universities were established
in 1857 at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras respectively. English as a means of inter-
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communication became necessary for the maintenance of our unity and to keep in touch
with other countries.‖

When the British started ruling India, they searched for Indian mediators who
could help them to administer India. The British turned to high caste Indians to work for
them. Many high-caste Indians, especially Brahmins worked for them. The British policy
was to create an Indian class that should think like the British, or as it was said then in
Britain, ―Indians in blood and color but English in taste, in opinions, morals, and
intellect‖. The British also established universities in India based on British models with
emphasis on English in India. So, Indians too got their education in British Universities.
The English Christian missionaries came to India in 1813 and they also built schools at a
very primary level for Indians where the language of instruction was the local medium.
Later, the missionaries built high schools with English as the language of instruction, and
this move benefited Indians who wanted to study and have a good knowledge of English.
From then onwards, English became the first language in Indian education. The ‗modern‘
leaders of that pre-independence era in India also supported the English language and
claimed it to be the key to success. Indians who knew good English were seen as the new
elite of India. Many new schools were established in which the language of instruction
was English. Even after post-independence English began to gain immense popularity.
English remained the main language in India. Officially it was given the status of an
associate language and it still remains an important language of India. Even today schools
in India that emphasize on English as the medium of instruction are considered better
schools and the same is the case at the University level as well. Therefore, English in
India plays a vital role.

Favoring the idea of encouraging the teaching of regional languages in schools

and colleges the commission recommended, ―We are emphatically of the opinion that
there is something unsound in a system of education which leaves a young man, at the
conclusion of his course, unable to speak or write his own mother tongue fluently and
correctly. It is thus beyond controversy that a systematic effort must henceforth be made
to promote the serious study of vernaculars in secondary schools, intermediate colleges
and in the university.‖ As a result of this recommendation, the medium of English was
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restricted only to colleges and universities from 1920 onwards throughout the country.
Commissions, Committees, and leaders of the public took a close look at the value of
English and tried to strike a balance between gains and losses.

People like C. Rajagopalachari favored the continuance of the English language,

but there were people who, under the influence of nationalism, advocated that English
should go with the English as it had come with them. They argued that English being a
foreign language couldn‘t cater to the needs of the students, unlike their mother tongue.
They declared that students could learn and express their ideas more easily in their
mother tongue. Consequently, it was decided that regional languages should be
developed and Hindi should replace English.

The University Education Commission (1949) suggested, among other things, that
English be replaced, as easily as practicable, by an Indian language as the medium of
instruction of higher education. The constitution of India, adopted in 1950 provided for
English to continue as the official language of the country for a period of fifteen years, to
be replaced by Hindi at the end of that period. The parliament later decided to allow
English to continue as the associate official language of the Union till such time as Hindi
began to be used for the administrative purpose all over the country.

Three language formula was adopted by the Ministry of Education of the

Government of India in consultation with the states. The formula as enunciated in the
1968 National Policy Resolution which provides for the study of ―Hindi, English, and
modern Indian language (preferably one of the southern languages) in the Hindi speaking
states and Hindi, English and the Regional language in the non-Hindi speaking states. It
gives due importance to regional languages and attempts to promote national integration
and national identity through a national link language that serves as a ―Window of the
World‖. In 1964 an Education Commission was set up to resolve the question of
instructional medium. The commission discussed this question and proposed that mother
tongue should be used up to the highest level of instruction, but English should be taught
both as a subject and as a library language at higher levels. As a result of the
implementation of this proposal, mother tongue got precedence over the English language
and a state of stability has prevailed for two decades afterward. The trend during the past
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two decades has however remarkably titled in favor of English. As a result, English
medium schools have cropped up like mushrooms in urban areas with under-qualified
teachers. The students of such schools do not find exposure either to their mother tongue
or to the English language. Their knowledge of the mother tongue is very poor. They are
being subjected to alienation from Indian culture and their cognitive development is also
being blocked. English language teaching deserves an immense weight in the present age
of globalization, but equal attention has to be paid to a multi-dimensional development of
children so that they may excel in all spheres of life.

Raja Rao‘s famous statement captures the pangs of English in India:

The telling has not been easy. One has to convey in a language that is not one‘s
own the spirit of one‘s own. One has to convey various shades and omissions of a certain
thought-movement that looks maltreated in an alien language……. We cannot write like
the English. We should not. We can write only as Indians. We have grown to look at the
large world as part of us. Our method of expression, therefore, has to be a dialect which
will someday prove to be as distinct and colorful as the Irish or the American. Time alone
will justify it.

1.4 GENESIS OF THE LANGUAGE POLICY AND PLANNING

Language policies and ideologies are often the product of political manipulations
and the resultant curriculum and the syllabus intended for study and the nature of
teaching-learning transactions are the products of these ideologies and policies.
Educational space thus becomes and remains the "site of monolithic/ monoglossic
ideologies" (Garcias, 2007) where various cultural, social, economic, and political fronts
are engaged in a constant struggle (Pennycook, 1994). These forces materialize into
interactional practices that tend to see each language as autonomous and thus reinforce
the unequal hierarchical status of languages (Mohanty, 2010a). The same is true in the
case of India.
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1.5 EDUCATIONAL SCENARIO IN ANDHRA PRADESH: AN OVERVIEW

As the fourth largest state in India, Andhra Pradesh, with 13 districts divided into
664 Mandals, educational and developmental projects have always been prioritized
by the government. Correspondingly, the period between 1984-2010 has been one of
educational experimentation and infrastructural development. Two diverse focuses were
unified through the first of its kind programme in the country, APPEP. This was only the
beginning.

Widdowson (1972) has pointed out the futility of an approach, which focuses on
language forms and ignores ways in which these forms can appropriately be used to
realize communicative acts. Educational failure of linguistic minorities all over the world
is primarily related to the mismatch between the home language and the language of
formal instruction. State policies in respect of languages in education often recognize but
ignore in practice the problem of exclusion of languages.

We can find a huge gap between the actual grounds and the policy provisions
made. Policies made by the government were never implemented properly and the fruits
were never tasted by the deserved.

1.6 CURRENT SCENARIO OF ENGLISH IN SCHOOLS' OF ANDHRA

PRADESH

English is introduced from class I, which meant that the learner would learn all
his school subjects in L1 till class V and continue to do so till class X. The 'English fever'
that Park (2009) so vividly describes to be in vogue in Korea, was experienced in a
different way in AP in 1996 when a massive survey responded to by teachers, parents and
students regarding the introduction of English in the government schools resulted in favor
of an early start. A Popular societal consensus that the earlier English was introduced the
better would it be, this led to the decision of informally introducing English from class
III. Accordingly, it was proposed that (on the lines of first language acquisition)
Listening and Speaking in English through songs and nursery rhymes were introduced in
1997 through classes III and IV. And formally in class V students would begin literacy
activities. Correspondingly, "My English Workbook - 1 and 2" were designed and
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introduced in classes III and IV. However, it was in 2003 that the formal decision to
introduce English in class III was taken and consecutively implemented in 2004. Owing
to popular demand for English Education and English, and its 'emancipator role' and
politically inclined vote bank politics have seen the introduction of English in class 1 for
about 40 minutes every day in the government educational system in 2005. With the
Knowledge Commission recommendations given in 2006 insisting on effective English
Language Education; with the increase in employment opportunities for English language
speakers. With the Right to Education Bill in 2009, the education scenario changed
phenomenally. The English language advantage in opportunities of education, economic
growth and employment (3E's) got intertwined so intricately with social and economic
empowerment that the year 2007 saw the introduction of a bold but failed experiment of
English medium sections from class VI onwards in the CBSE syllabus in the public
education system (under the project "SUCCESS"- Strengthening & Universalization of
Quality and Access to Secondary Schools). The next year, 2008 saw the English medium
sections shifting to the State English medium syllabus where all the subjects were
imparted in English. The year 2009 saw English medium sections starting from class I. It
was soon realized that the Government schools will need their own English textbooks.
Efforts to create textbooks for class I to VII had started in 2010 and were introduced from
classes I to VII in June 2012.

Theoretical arguments for bilingual education and bilingual processing support

teaching and development of cognitive and academic capabilities in L1. Cognitive
capabilities are transferable from L1 to L2 and that (Mohanty, 2006; Bialystok, 2001b;
Herdina and Jessner, 2002). The introduction of English in the schools is a politically
inclined popular decision rather than a supported judgment (Cummins, 2000a, Mohanty,
2012). The socio-cognitive and the sociolinguistic resources that the learners as young as
6-7 (class I) carry into the classroom are coded in the L1 but when that knowledge is cut
off nothing is left to be developed (Mohanty, 2009b: 5-6). Schunk (2004) contends that
when L1 language abilities and cognitive competencies are not enabled, twice the efforts
will be needed to enable them in L2. A child cannot connect himself with a new alien
language as he is nowhere associated with the language this results in language
disabilities and stunted cum delayed and learning capabilities (Berninger et aI. 2003). The
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impact is cumulative. In contexts where the learners' mother tongue is not considered for
his socioeconomic development, the language is not pedagogically valued and
consequently, the cognitive and academic use of language in decontextualized and
demanding situations are not prioritized as thought. The cognitive advantage that the L1
can provide for L2 learning gets severed. It is with this background that an overview of
the educational innovations in Andhra Pradesh needs to be examined and understood.

1.7 CURRICULUM OF ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF ANDHRA

PRADESH

The syllabus is framed and produced by the government of Andhra Pradesh. Two
different sets of textbooks prescribed for English and Telugu medium schools. For
Telugu medium English is introduced from class I. ―Our World Through English 6‖ is the
prescribed textbook for class VI. ―Our World Through English 7‖ is the prescribed
textbook for class VII. These textbooks contain lessons, reading and writing activities.
The prose and poetic works are selected as a part of the curriculum rather make it
difficult for the learners to learn the language. Time constraint does not permit the
teachers to teach English in a learner-friendly environment.

1.8 COGNITIVE PROBLEMS IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Second language writing is believed to be cognitively complex. The term

―Cognitive‖ refers to the process of information. Cognition denotes more than simply
reasonable thought like process. It also refers to the various mental processes used in
thinking, remembering, perceiving, recognizing, classifying, etc. Indeed, writing is the
product of the complex interaction of the linguistic environment and the learner‘s internal
mechanisms. Writing in a second language is divided into three stages: Construction, in
which the writer plans what he/she is going to write by brainstorming, using a mind map
or outline; Transformation in the form of the message when the writer is composing or
receiving; Execution, which corresponds to the physical process of producing text. The
first two stages have been described as ―setting goals and searching memory for
information. Then, using production system to generate language in phases or
constituents‖ (O‘ Malley and Chamot, 1990, p.42).
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In structuring information, the writer uses various types of knowledge including

discourse knowledge, understanding of the audience, and sociolinguistic rules (O‘ Malley
and Chamot, 1990). Organization at both the sentence and the text levels are also
important for the effective communication of meaning, and ultimately, for the quality of
the written product (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1987). As writing finishes, revision is a
cognitively demanding task for L2 learners because it not only involves evolution and
modification of text written (Grabe Kaplan, 1996). From this, it can be understood that
writing is a cognitively challenging task, which is very difficult for the Jatapu learners.

1.9 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS AFFECTING SECOND LANGUAGE

WRITING

Cognitive factors play a very key role in second language research along with
social aspects. There have many different approaches to the sociolinguistic study of
second-language acquisition, and indeed, according to Rod Ellis, this plurality has meant
that "sociolinguistic SLA is replete with a bewildering set of terms referring to the social
aspects of L2 acquisition".

Ellis identifies three types of social structure which can affect the acquisition of
second languages: sociolinguistic setting, specific social factors, and situational factors.
Sociolinguistic setting refers to the role of the second language in society, such as
whether it is spoken by a majority or a minority of the population, whether its use is
widespread or restricted to a few functional roles, or whether the society is predominantly
bilingual or monolingual. Ellis also includes the distinction of whether the second
language is learned in a natural or an educational setting. Specific social factors that can
affect second-language acquisition include age, gender, social class, and ethnic identity,
with ethnic identity being the one that has received most research attention. Situational
factors are those which vary between each social interaction. For example, the use of
language varies from person to person, may use more polite language when talking to
someone of higher social status, but more informal language when talking with friends.

There have been several models developed to explain social effects on language
acquisition. Schumann's Acculturation Model proposes that learners' rate of development
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and ultimate level of language achievement is a function of the "social distance" and the
"psychological distance" between learners and the second-language community. In
Schumann's model, the social factors are most important, but the degree to which learners
are comfortable learning the second language also plays a vital role. Another
sociolinguistic model is Gardner's socio-educational model, which was designed to
explain classroom language acquisition. The inter-group model proposes "ethnolinguistic
vitality" as a key construct for second-language acquisition. Language socialization is an
approach with the premise that "linguistic and cultural knowledge is constructed through
each other", and saw increased attention after the year 2000. Finally, Norton's theory of
social identity is an attempt to codify the relationship between power, identity, and
language acquisition.

1.10 SOCIO-CULTURAL APPROACHES

A related but subtly different approach is taken in the sociocultural theory

developed by Lev Vygotsky and his followers. While still essentially being based on the
cognitive tradition, sociocultural theory has a fundamentally different set of assumptions
to approaches to second-language acquisition based on the computational model.
Furthermore, although it is closely affiliated with other social approaches, it is a theory of
mind and not of general social explanations of language acquisition. According to Ellis,
"It is important to recognize... that this paradigm, despite the label 'sociocultural' does not
seek to explain how learners acquire the cultural values of the L2 but rather how
knowledge of an L2 is internalized through experiences of a sociocultural nature.

The community life, the economy, the lifestyle, the traditions of the tribal and
their outlook of the world are totally unique. All these have their human values and
cultural significance. The greatest problem is that though the tribal have come to
recognize modernization and the demands of time, they are not coming forward to bring
reforms in their educational status and economic standards. The oral tradition in teaching
must be an important device to develop the personality of a tribal child from his/her own
cultural environment, instead of creating an artificial blurred personality dissociated with
home and school environment. To bridge the gap of the socio-cultural environment with
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that of the school curriculum, exploration of rich tribal folklore can be helpful in the
promotion of tribal education.

Brown, Collins& Diguid (1989:32) argued that knowledge is situated, being in

part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used.‖
Without an integral understanding of what knowledge is learned, and how it is learned
and used in a context, the impact of school and academic culture on students‘ formation
of knowledge may be overlooked.

1.11 PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

Writing is a solitary activity and students are required to write on their own.
Writing in a foreign or second language is a courageous experience especially for
students whose native language is not of the same origin as the target language. These
students are faced with the school curriculum that includes the four main skills (LSRW)
of English. Among these skills, they find writing skill the most difficult. To start writing
one needs to generate ideas, compose, develop the ideas and frame them in sentences. To
complete the whole process one needs practice and motivation. Fear of language builds
up their psychological anxiety which results in their inability to reproduce on paper what
they have learned. In order to overcome these problems, teachers who teach writing at
any level of education must employ suitable strategies for different stages of writing,
encourage and supply the necessary input to their students.

1.12 OF MOTIVATION AND LEARNING ENGLISH: A PERSPECTIVE ON EFL

STUDENTS IN BANGLADESH

Motivation and learning tend to be interrelated and correlated with each other.
Among all other learning variables, motivation is considered the most significant factor
in language learning. The more a learner is motivated the more effective learning would
take place. Learning a foreign language such as English denotes the preference and zeal
of the learner depending on the intensity of motivation. So, in order to help the students
maintain proper strength in English, learning to motivate is essential for teachers in the
regular teaching procedure. This paper discusses the role of motivation in English
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language learning in four main sections focusing on EFL students of Bangladesh. Finally,
some suggestions are offered to teachers.

In the last two decades, researchers in the field of language learning identified the
importance of motivation for successful foreign or second language learning (Gardner,
1985; Tremblay & Gardner, 1995; Wharton, 2000; Noels, 2001).

Motivation actually determines what we can do or enhances our ability to do. So,
it is the driving force for doing things. There are different variables influencing and
affecting Second Language Acquisition. Among these factors, motivation has received
much attention in language learning than any other single factor in individual differences
(Ellis, 2008).

Gardner (1985) stresses that motivation for language learning can include both
goal orientation and the combination of effort; desire to achieve the goal of learning the
language. His core of motivation is the dichotomy of integrative and instrumental
orientations.

Nonetheless, all the language researchers in the world do not agree with
Gardner‘s view of motivation. Hungarian psychologist Dornyei (1994) suggests a
motivation model viewing motivation as an intricate process with three levels: the
language level, the learner level, and the learning situation level. On the contrary, Brown
(1994) has classified motivation into three types such as global motivation, situational
motivation, and task motivation respectively. Subsequently, Wen (2001) illustrates
motivation as the cause of studying English and the target of learning English. She
separates motivation of learning English into two types: surface motivation and deep
motivation. Those who have surface motivation are inclined to get a degree, a better job,
or a higher salary. On the other hand, those who have deep motivation are interested to
teach not for the sake of money but for a cause of teaching as a passion.

1.13 LANGUAGE LEVEL, LEARNER LEVEL, AND SITUATION LEVEL

Dornyei (1994) in his study defines a framework for motivation that comprises
three levels: the language level, the learner level, and the learning situation level. These
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three levels of learning motivation are connected respectively to the social dimension, the
personal dimension, and the educational subject matter dimension. He explains that the
language level focuses on motives and orientations related to diverse aspects of language
such as how it carries the culture, the milieu where it is spoken, and the potential
necessity of proficiency in it. The learner level focuses on a synthesis of effects and
cognitions to form fairly static personality traits to increase learner‘s self-confidence and
learning goals. The learning situation level consists of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational
conditions and focuses on the syllabus, the teaching materials, the teaching methods, and
the learning tasks.

1.13.1 MOTIVATING/INSPIRING STUDENTS ACCORDINGLY

Learning English is an exhaustive task. Encouragement and praise should be

treated as a reward for learning it. We all know that to learn a new language such as
English is no easy job for the majority of students. It needs countless practice and great
effort. If student‘s hard work and progress are ignored by the teachers, they may feel
disappointed, or even become demotivated. On the contrary, if the teachers praise
student‘s effort and progress timely, they will extend more efforts and consequently will
make greater progress in learning English. Many teachers have had experience of
occasionally encouraging or praising a student who is having great difficulty in learning
English, and in the end, to everybody‘s surprise, the student becomes enthusiastic about
learning English resulting in considerable progress.

Dornyei (1994, 1998) suggests that L2 learning motivation is a multifaceted

construct which has no absolute definition. Recent research has taken more account of
situation-specific factors impacting on the language learning experience. Moreover, at
present, L2 motivation is increasingly viewed as a ―dynamic‖ rather than a ―static‖
concept that means motivation does not remain stable all the time. Noels (2001) suggests
that motivational orientations in second or foreign Language learning can be categorized
according to the extent to which the goal of performing an activity is self-determined.
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1.14 LINGUISTIC PROBLEMS

Linguistic problems differ from cognitive approaches and socio-cultural

problems. They consider language knowledge to be unique and distinct from any other
type of knowledge language. Learners have linguistic problems in their second language
writing. The first language linguistic knowledge may help to motivate and facilitate L2
writing. The process of writing in L1 is not equal or cannot be compared to writing in L2.
But L1 helps in better understanding of the meaning of the sentence in L2.

1.15 LINGUISTIC FACTORS

Linguistic approaches to explaining second-language acquisition spring from the

widest study of linguistics. The linguistic research tradition in second-language
acquisition has developed in relative isolation from the cognitive and sociocultural
research traditions, and as of 2010 the influence from the wider field of linguistics was
still strong. Two main strands of research can be identified in the linguistic tradition:
approaches informed by universal grammar, and typological approaches. Irrespective of
languages typological universals are held for all the world languages. They are found
empirically, by surveying different languages and deducing which aspects of them could
be universal; these aspects are then checked against other languages to verify the
findings. The inter-languages of second-language learners have been shown to obey
typological universals, and some researchers have suggested that typological universals
may constrain inter-language development.

Linguistic problems differ from cognitive approaches and socio-cultural

problems. They consider language knowledge to be unique and distinct from any other
type of knowledge language. Learners have linguistic problems in particular in their
second language writing. The first language linguistic knowledge may help to motivate,
facilitate L2 writing. On the other hand, the process of writing in L1 is not equal in the
process of writing in the second language. But L1 helps in understanding the particular
meaning of a word, sentence of L2. The Jatapu learners have major linguistic problems in
second language writing. The linguistic complexity is more for the Jatapu learners as it
does not help them immediately understand English. Hegemonic position of dominant
 17

languages, an imposition of their norms on the languages of minority and disadvantaged

groups and common biases in the assessment of verbal skills of bilingual/multilingual
children have led to propagation of the myth of linguistic deficit (Mohanty 2000: 106).
When you look into the situation of learning, acquiring and communication in vernacular
or mother tongue becomes a habitual action. One does not master one‘s mother tongue by
technically learning it, but with his journey with the language makes the difference.

Oral communication is sustained through a process of interaction except in special

circumstances, such as a lecture, where all the participants keep listening while a lecture
is being delivered. Speech is normally spontaneous. We have little time to pay attention
to in organizing our sentences. To some extent, oral communication is maintained
through the process of interaction. We repeat, go back again and again, return to the
book, etc. Incomplete and ungrammatical utterances are tolerated. On the other hand, in
writing, we have to compensate for the absence of a considerable range of prosodic
features at our disposal. We have to keep the channel of communication open through our
choice of sentence structure and by the way our sentences are linked together and
sequenced that the text we produce can be interpreted on its own.

1.16 AFFECTIVE FACTORS

The learner's attitude to the learning process has also been identified as being
critically important to second-language acquisition. Anxiety in language-learning
situations has been almost unanimously shown to be detrimental to successful learning. A
related factor, personality, has also received attention. There has been a discussion about
the effects of extrovert and introvert personalities. However, one study has found that
there were no significant differences between extroverts and introverts on the way they
achieve success in a second language.

Social attitudes such as gender roles and community views toward language
learning have also proven critical. Also, the motivation of the individual learner is of vital
importance to the success of language learning. Studies have consistently shown that
intrinsic motivation, or a genuine interest in the language itself, is more effective over the
 18

long-term than extrinsic motivation, as in learning a language for a reward such as high
grades or praise.

1.16.1 INDIVIDUAL VARIATION

There is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages,
and at the language level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn quickly and
reach a near-native level of competence, but others learn slowly and get stuck at
relatively early stages of acquisition, despite living in the country where the language is
spoken for several years. The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study
of language learning aptitude in the 1950s, and later with the good language learner
studies in the 1970s. More recently research has focused on a number of different factors
that affect individuals' language learning, in particular, strategy use, social and societal
influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the
ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long-standing debate.

1.16.2 AGE

The issue of age was first addressed with the critical period hypothesis. The strict
version of this hypothesis states that there is a cut-off age at about 12, after which
learners lose the ability to fully learn a language. This strict version has since been
rejected for second-language acquisition, as adult learners have been observed who reach
native-like levels of pronunciation and general fluency. However, in general, adult
learners of a second-language rarely achieve the native-like fluency that children display,
despite often progressing faster in the initial stages. This has led to speculation that age is
indirectly related to other, more central factors that affect language learning.

1.16.3 MOTIVATION

Motivation to write is an important factor in writing competence (Pajares, 1996).

Students who lack the motivation to write will not readily engage in academic writing
activities. These students may exhibit high anxiety thinking about writing, low self-
efficacy for writing, and a lack of self-regulation and self-determination when writing.
 19

Motivation is a very large and well-studied field. In fact, it is so large that

sometimes it is hard to draw connections among motivation and specific activities such as
math and science, or even writing (Hidi & Boscolo, 2007). With writing being such an
integral part of human existence, it is very important that studies of motivation and
writing be conducted. It is even more important that the outcomes of these studies have
real-life applications that can be implemented to increase the quality of all students‘
writing.

Writing self-efficacy is associated with aspects of motivation such as writing

apprehension, intrinsic and extrinsic goals, the perceived value of writing, and self-
efficacy for self-regulation.

These steps include memory retrieval, goal setting, planning, problem-solving, and
evaluation (Flower & Hayes, 1981). Writing is an important skill in all academic
disciplines at all school levels. Students‘ ability to write clearly and effectively affects
their academic performance across the curriculum (Hidi & Boscolo, 2007). However,
most professions require good writing skills while some even higher levels of
competency.

1.17 STRATEGIES

There has been considerable attention paid to the strategies which learners use
when learning a second language. Strategies have been found to be of critical importance,
so much so that strategic competence has been suggested as a major component of
communicative competence. Strategies are commonly divided into learning strategies and
communicative strategies, although there are other ways of categorizing them. Learning
strategies are techniques used to improve learning, such as mnemonics or using a
dictionary. Communicative strategies are strategies a learner uses to convey meaning
even when she doesn't have access to the correct form, such as using pro-forms like a
thing or using non-verbal means such as gestures.
 20

1.18 THE PURPOSE OF TEACHING WRITING SKILLS FOR JATAPU

LEARNERS

Jawaharlal Nehru suggested that the tribes to develop along with lines of their
own genius. Addressing on all India conference of the tribal held at Jagdalpur of Bastar
district of Madhya Pradesh on March 19 he said that ―Whenever you live you live in your
own way. We want that your customs should survive and at the same time we want that
you should be educated and should do your part in the welfare of our country‖. (Singh,
2006 p4).

The main purpose of the study is to identify the overall patterns of interaction
prevailing in English with the Jatapu learners at the high school level and examine the
nature of learning of the Jatapu learners, teacher interaction in the classroom and the
behavior of Jatapu learners in these classes which would provide an insight into the
reasons responsible for the poor proficiency of Jatapu learners in English.

The purposes of teaching writing skills at the high school level are as follows:

 To improvise their other three languages skills.

 To make them find out what problems they have and provide them with
appropriate materials,

 To give ideas, and motivate them to improve their writing skills.

 To make them read texts and offer guided written activities in order to improve
their skills.

 To give suggestions to the teachers and students to record the progress made
during the course.

Learning to write well is a difficult and long process which requires much effort
in terms of language and thoughts. Traditional approaches to the teaching of writing
focus on the product: in other words, the production of neat, grammatically correct pieces
of writing (Mahon 1992). Good writing skills are essential for academic success and
written work serves to provide learners with some support to prove themselves as
 21

academically sound. It also helps them to become more effective learners through better
thinking and better learning leads to effective writing.

1.19 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The main objective of the study is to investigate the nature and the problems
while writing English language. The second objective is to identify the problematic
factors at the root level faced by the target group. The third objective is to help them
employ and implement the modes and methods learned to obtain a better writing
experience.

The study aims at

1. Finding out the problems faced by Jatapu learners in English language writing.

2. Employs suitable strategies in teaching writing.

3. To find the contributing factors for low performance.

4. Investigating the affective factors like psychological, linguistical and socio-

economic factors.

5. To help them overcome the fear of the language.

6. Creating awareness on different approaches of writing

1.20 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

With the availability of minimal resources and taking the time factor into
consideration, the researcher confined the scope of study in investigating the writing
problems in the English language with occasional reference to speaking, listening, and
reading. The researcher chose Jatapu learners of class VI & VII students of AP Tribal
Welfare Residential Schools in Salur Mandal of Andhra Pradesh district for her study.
Not all Jatapu learners of the school were taken into consideration. A selected 300
students samplings are recorded.
 22

1.21 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The project aimed to investigate the ways in which learners‘ own languages are
used in English-language teaching around the world, to explore teachers‘ perceptions and
attitudes towards the use of learners‘ own languages in the ELT classroom, and to
investigate the factors that influence teachers‘ reported practices and attitudes.
Consequently, the study addressed the following research questions:

1. To find out the problems of Jatapu learners in learning English language.

2. What suitable teaching methodologies should be adopted by teachers to teach writing

skills for Jatapu learners?

3. Need for approached based learning

4. Need for designing special material to teach English language.

1.22 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

This thesis is divided into six chapters. The first chapter is an introduction to the
History of English language; English in India, tribal education in India, the problems of
Jatapu learners in writing skills, their need to learn writing skills at high school are
discussed. Then the status of the English language teaching, the importance of writing
skills, and the purpose of teaching writing skills are detailed. Finally, the objectives of the
study, rationale, significance of the study are explained.

The second chapter introduces Jatapu tribes, their ethnology, culture, problems,
reasons and educational perspectives of Jatapu tribes.

The third chapter is the review of the related literature in the area of writing skills.
It defines writing skills, types of writing skills, and methods of teaching writing skills at
the high school level. This chapter describes a few related reviews. The fourth chapter
deals with research design, the research questions and the tools used for data collection. It
also discusses the procedure followed for data collection. The fifth chapter interprets the
collected data. The analysis of pre-test and post-test scripts is presented. Finally, the sixth
chapter gives the concluding remarks and the major finding of the study. It points out the
 23

implication to the study and gives the recommendation to teachers, parents, materials
producers and administrators. It also gives suggestions for further research.

1.23 CONCLUSION

In this chapter, the introduction of English language teaching in India, the history
of English, and the status of English in India are discussed. It also discusses the purpose
of English language teaching to Jatapu community learners, the problems of Jatapu
learners in writing and the objective of the study. It presented the rationale of the study,
the scope of the study and the organization of the thesis.
 24

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