COS 101 Introduction to Computing Sciences
MODULE 2 - COMPUTER HARDWARE
OVERVIEW
This module provides general knowledge about the Computer Hardware. It also describes the
physical components required for a computer system to function efficiently; the input and output
devices. It presents and explain the different storage hardware and their functions. It also highlights
the different unit of measurement for storage. It clearly illustrates the different components of
Central Processing Unit (CPU) and their functions.
OBJECTIVES
This module focuses on providing students with the basic knowledge of Computer Hardware.
Specifically, students should be able to:
1. Define Computer Hardware clearly.
2. Describe different types of Input Hardware.
3. Describe different types of Output Hardware.
4. Illustrate the primary components of the CPU and describe their functions.
5. Explain the uses of different disks, other storage media and their functions.
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer hardware refers to the physical, tangible components of a computer system that enable
it to function.1 It encompasses all the electronic and mechanical parts that process data, store
information, and facilitate interaction with the user.2
The vast array of hardware components can be organized into a functional system with four main
categories: Input, Processing, Storage, and Output.3
1. PROCESSING COMPONENTS (THE CORE)
These are the "brains" of the computer, responsible for executing instructions and managing the flow
of data.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU): Often called the processor, it is the primary component
that performs calculations, executes program instructions, and manages all other
components.4 Its speed (measured in Gigahertz, GHz) and number of cores determine the
computer's overall computational power.5
• Random Access Memory (RAM): The volatile, high-speed working memory.6 It
temporarily holds data and instructions for programs that are currently running. RAM is
much faster than storage, allowing the CPU to access necessary data quickly.7 Data is lost
when power is off.8
• Motherboard: The main circuit board that acts as the central nervous system, connecting
every piece of hardware.9 It contains the CPU socket, RAM slots, and various ports and slots
for expansion.10
• Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): A specialized processor designed for rendering images,
videos, and animations.11 Modern GPUs are also widely used for complex parallel
computations in fields like AI and scientific modeling.12
2. STORAGE COMPONENTS
These components are used for the non-volatile, long-term retention of data and programs.
• Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Traditional storage using spinning magnetic platters to store
data.13 It offers high capacity at a low cost but is slower due to mechanical limitations.
• Solid State Drive (SSD): Modern storage that uses flash memory chips (like a giant USB
drive).14 With no moving parts, it is significantly faster, more durable, and consumes less
power than an HDD.15
• Read-Only Memory (ROM): Non-volatile memory that stores firmware, such as the
BIOS/UEFI, which contains the critical instructions needed for the computer to start up.16
3. INPUT DEVICES
Input devices allow users or other systems to feed data and control signals into the computer.17
• Keyboard: For entering text and commands.18
• Mouse/Trackpad: For controlling the cursor and interacting with graphical user interfaces
(GUIs).
• Microphone: For audio input, recording, and voice commands.
• Webcam/Scanner: For image and video input.
4. OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices translate the processed data from the computer into a human-understandable
format.19
• Monitor/Screen: Displays visual information and the GUI.20
• Printer: Produces a hard copy of text or images on paper.21
• Speakers/Headphones: Converts electrical signals into audible sound.22
5. INTERCONNECTION AND POWER
These components manage the power and external connectivity of the system.23
• Power Supply Unit (PSU): Converts the AC power from the wall outlet into the specific
DC voltages required by the internal components (CPU, Motherboard, etc.).24
• Expansion Cards: Optional circuit boards (like a dedicated sound card or network card) that
plug into the motherboard's expansion slots to add or enhance functionality.25
• Ports and Cables: Physical connections (e.g., USB, HDMI, Ethernet) that allow the
computer to communicate with external peripherals and networks.26
The term "computer hardware" is described as the external and internal tools you need to do
important tasks including input, output, storage, communication, processing, and more.
Figure 1: External system hardware sample
Figure 2: Internal Hardware sample
2.1 Input Hardware
The phrase "Hardware" refers to all the tangible parts of a computer system that a user can touch,
such as the keyboard, visual display unit, system unit, mouse, printer, etc. A computer system's input
devices (hardware)are used to enter data into the system. Examples are:
2.1.1Keyboards: The most frequent input devices are keyboards, which resemble typewriters. They
are made up of keys that stand in for letters, numbers, and unique symbols. They also contain
function keys, which vary in use based on the program being used, from F1 to F12.
Figure 3: Keyboard
2.1.2 Pointing Devices
Mouse: With the invention of the mouse, the movement restriction of older input devices was
eliminated. The necessity for an input device that can assist with data entry by picking an option on
the desktop comes with the introduction of GUI. A computer user may now rotate their screen 360
degrees, something that was previously impossible, with the aid of a mouse. One type of mouse has
a tracking ball that sends the signal to move the pointer on the screen, while the other type is an
optical mouse that detects movement and moves the pointer on the screen.
Fig 4: Mouse
2.1.3 Trackballs
Using a trackball, you can input motion information into computers and other electronics. Its top has
a rolling, moving ball that can move in any direction, acting as a mouse-like device. Instead of
moving the complete gadget, simply roll the movable ball on top of the trackball unit with your hand
to provide motion input. The main function of computer trackballs, which are often used in place of
mice, is to move the cursor around the screen. Similar to mice, computer trackballs have buttons that
can be used as left- and right-click buttons as well as for other commands. Trackballs can be found
in various electronic devices outside computers, such as arcade games, mixing boards, and self-
service kiosks, however they are most frequently used with computers. The trackballs on these
gadgets are frequently bigger than those seen on computer input devices.
Figure 5: Trackball
2.1.4 Pointing sticks
Similar to a joystick, the pointing stick may move and control the computer cursor. It is intended for
its height to be just above the keys. A pointing stick is a practical substitute for a touchpad if a laptop
lacks the necessary space. The sensitivity grading of the pointing stick must be adjusted to recognize
motions and taps intended for its use in order for it to function as intended.
Figure 6: Pointing sticks
2.1.5 Touchpads
The development of the touch screen is thought to have revolutionized the world of input devices.
Smartphones, ATMs, railway inquiry systems, and many other devices use touch screens widely.
They are very simple to use. To choose an option, users only need to touch it. When the choice is
touched, the light beam is broken, the position of the option is registered, and the program that
controls that option is run.
Figure 7: Touchpads
2.1.6 Light Pens
The tip of a light pen has a photocell. To select the necessary choice, move it around the screen and
touch it. The light pen executes the file concealed by that option after detecting the light emanating
from it. The light pen is mostly utilized in computer-aided design (CAD) and graphic design work.
During football broadcasts, light pens are frequently utilized by the commentators to draw free-hand
lines on the TV screen.
Figure 8: Light Pens
2.1.8 Pen based system
Pen-based computing describes mobile computers that input data into a computer using an electronic
writing pad and a light-sensitive pen. The writing is turned into digital input and kept in a computer
file. Due to the fact that the majority of people are at ease using pens, pen-based computing is
becoming more and more common. Sales and service personnel, insurance agents, retail suppliers,
delivery persons, inventory clerks, and healthcare professionals who are frequently on the go can all
benefit from it.
2.1.9 Source Data Entry Devices
a. Scanning Devices
Optical input devices enable computers to use light as an input source. A scanner is an example of
an optical input device. Barcode readers, optical mark readers, magnetic ink character readers for
magnetic ink character recognition (MICR), optical character readers for optical character
recognition (OCR), and optical mark readers are some other common optical input devices.
Figure 9: Scanning Device
b. Barcode Reader
Barcodes are machine-readable vertical lines that are adjacent and have a varied width. Books,
groceries, and other items can be identified by barcode. Barcode scanners make use of reflected light
to read barcodes. The computer receives this data and uses the bars' spacing and thickness to decipher
the code. In order to read labels on books and in department shops, handheld barcode readers are
frequently utilized.
Fast and precise barcode readers are available. They help provide customers with faster service and
can also be used to count the number of each item sold or to retrieve an item's price.
Figure 10: Barcode Reader
c. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
Banks utilize MICR to process a lot of checks at once. The magnetic encoding numbers printed at
the bottom of a check are recognized using it. The numbers on the check are printed with iron-
containing ink and are legible to humans. These figures have magnets in them. For character
recognition, MICR uses a magnetic ink character reader. The magnetic field causes the read head to
detect the characters or numbers on the check when it is passed through a magnetic ink character
reader. In banks, readers are typically used to process checks. The bank, branch, and check numbers
are all located at the bottom of the check. OCR cannot read documents as quickly as MICR.
Figure 11: Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
d. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
OMR is employed to find marks on paper. By their blackness, the marks can be identified. OMR
reads the marks using an optical mark reader. The information is passed when the OMR scanner
scans the forms and recognizes the mark that is correctly positioned on the paper and darker than the
surrounding paper, it sends the information to the computer for processing by application software.
In order to do this, a light beam is used to capture the presence and absence of marks on the paper
that has been marked. By measuring the reflected light, the optical mark reader locates the mark.
The computer interprets and stores the mark pattern
Figure 12: Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
e. Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
OCR is a technique for scanning documents, converting it, and then identifying the image as
modifiable ASCII text using OCR software. OCR uses an optical character reader to recognize
characters. The optical character reader stores the scanned image as a bitmap image, which is a grid
of dots. As a result, the text that has been scanned cannot be edited. OCR software is required in
order to alter the scanned text. OCR software converts the array of dots into text that the computer
can read as words and letters. In order to recognize the words and letters of text, OCR software
compares the pattern on the scanned image with the ones that are stored in the computer. Different
file formats can be used to store the text files produced by OCR. OMR is widely used to read the
responses in objective type tests, where students indicate their responses by darkening a particular
circle with a pencil. OMR is used to read a variety of forms, especially orders and questionnaires.
Figure 13: Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
f. Sensors
A sensor is an apparatus that detects changes in electrical, physical, or other characteristics and
produces an output to signal the recognition of the change. This sensor's output typically takes the
shape of an electrical or optical signal. Infrared (IR) sensors, ultrasonic sensors, light sensors, smoke
and gas sensors, proximity sensors, optical sensors, position sensors, thermal or heat or temperature
sensors, electric current or potential or magnetic or radio sensors, humidity sensors, fluid velocity
or flow sensors, pressure sensors, and magnetic switch sensors are among the most commonly used
types of sensors.
Figure 14: Sensors
g. Audio-input Devices
Speech or human voice can be used to give the computer with audio input. The computer's audio
input can serve a variety of functions. A sensor is a tool that detects variations in electrical, among
other things, it can be used to make phone conversations, have audio and video conferences online,
record voice, create audio files, include those files in emails, or translate spoken words into text.
Speak data into a computer using a microphone or another audio input device. The sound card
transforms the analog audio signals from the microphone into digital codes so that the computer can
store and use them. The sound card additionally transforms the digital sound into analog signals that
can be sent to the speakers. cal, physical, or other characteristics and produces an output to signal
the change. Speech recognition, often known as voice recognition, is the process of turning spoken
words into written ones. The speech recognition system or voice recognition system is made up of
the audio input and voice recognition software. Examples MIDI keyboards, microphones, or another
type of digital musical instrument.
Figure 15: Audio-input Devices
Speech Synthesizer: With the aid of a microphone, data is input into a speech synthesizer in the form
of a human voice. This data is transformed into electronic signals by the system. Following that,
these signals are compared to patterns that are already stored in a computer system. The speech
synthesizer has the issue that if a person changes the way they talk, the computer might not be able
to recognize their voice pattern.
h. Voice-recognition Systems
Voice recognition is the process of decoding a human voice using computer software or hardware.
Without using a keyboard, mouse, or click on buttons, voice recognition software is widely used to
control a device, issue commands, or write. Here are some scenarios where voice recognition might
be used: Automated phone systems are used by many businesses nowadays to help direct callers to
get the appropriate department. Have you have ever been instructed to "Say or press number 2 for
support" and you responded "two," voice recognition has been used. You may search and ask
inquiries on your computer, tablet, and phone using Google Voice, a service. Voice recognition is
used to communicate with digital assistants like Google Assistant, Apple's Siri, and Amazon Echo,
which assist with question-answering. Car Bluetooth - If your vehicle has Bluetooth or Handsfree
phone pairing, you can make calls using voice recognition by saying things like "call my wife" while
keeping your eyes on the road.
i. Video-input Devices
The computer receives video input from a video camera and a digital camera. Full-motion video
images can be captured with a video camera. Images can be compressed and saved on a computer
disk after being converted to digital form. A typical type of video camera is the webcam. To take
pictures of the user using the computer, it is mounted on top of the screen of the device. The user
can connect video equipment, such as camcorders, to the computer using a video capture card.
Figure 16: Video-input Devices
j. Electronic Cameras
Still photos can be captured with a digital camera. You can move your photographs to an external
storage device and use it with your computer after its memory (RAM) is full. As an alternative, you
can use a port on your computer—typically FireWire or USB—to download the images, which you
can then edit for use in your own publications.
Figure 17: Electronic Cameras
2.20 Output Hardware
a. Softcopy
A digital document file kept on a computer or drive is known as a "soft copy." It is not a printed
version of any document; rather, it is an electronic version. Depending on the type of document, you
can open and edit a soft copy using software programs including database programs, processing
programs, presentation software, and many more. A temporary copy is the output of a soft copy,
which is stored in computers, USB devices, etc. The soft copy cannot be touched because it is a
virtual object. This makes it another name for a virtual copy of a file or document. Soft copies are
easily shared and sent over a network connection, such as social media, email, etc. Compared to hard
copies, they are a more affordable and practical form of communication. E-books, E-News, papers,
scanned notes, PDF notes, etc. are a few examples. Compared to hard copies, soft copies are more
resilient and long-lasting. Hard copies are very simple to fold, twist, burn, rip, or destroy. When a
user makes numerous backups and stores the soft copy in a suitable hardware setup, it remains
resistant to destruction.
B. Hardcopy
A hard copy is a printed version of a computer-generated digital document file on paper or another
transparent material. The output is physically printed on paper and is consequently occasionally
referred to as a permanent copy. It could be a picture, some text, a drawing, or another printable file.
They are called "hard copies" because they are tangible physical objects that humans can touch. So,
it qualifies as a physical copy as well. Books, newspapers, printed document files, notebooks, and
other materials are a few examples.
Hard copies still matter for a variety of reasons, even in the digital age. When someone loses or
mistakenly destroys their digital data, the hard copies in some situations may serve as a backup. In
addition, some people find it quite simple to manage and distribute hard copies. In some cases,
people can also utilize these copies as templates or schemas that have been scribbled up with a pencil
or pen.
B1. Printers
Printers are used to produce hard copy of output and are divided into two categories; one is an impact
printer and second is a nonimpact printer:
Impact Printers: Similar to a typewriter, impact printers operate. Similar to how characters on paper
are created on typewriters when an arm with an embossed character strikes the ribbon and leaves an
impression, impact printers use a head made up of several pins (typically nine or twenty-four) that
strike the ribbon to create an impression of a character on the paper. Dot matrix printers are another
name for impact printers. The following categories can be used to categorize dot matrix printers:
Character printers print individual characters one at a time, first from right to left and then from left
to right.
Figure 18: Printers
Nonimpact Printers: The paper is never touched by these printers. With the aid of heat or a laser,
they create a character's picture on the paper. The following categories can be used to categorize
nonimpact printers:
A thermal printer: They are focusing on the idea of heat. The use of heat-sensitive sheets allows for
the formation of dotted-form characters. This printer's limitations include the need for a unique type
of paper and the inability to print numerous copies at once.
Laser Printers: These printers make use of laser technology in order to print. The ink powder (also
known as toner) is poured onto the drum and deposits itself on the characters that have been
generated there after being charged by the laser beam. These characters are printed on the paper as
it revolves on the drum. Although a laser printer has a high initial cost, the cost per page of printing
is relatively low.
Inkjet Printer: Compared to laser printers, inkjet printers are less expensive, but printing costs are
higher. Utilizing an electric field, this printer sprays ink onto the paper through its nozzles. The
characters are created by the paper absorbing the ink.
Plotters: Plotters have a printing arm that can revolve 360 degrees. Plotters are mostly used for
printing technical designs that are used in CAD or CAM (computer-aided design or manufacturing).
B2. Plotters
A plotter is a type of printer that receives computer orders and uses a variety of pens to create
drawings on paper. Large graphs and designs, such as construction maps, engineering drawings,
architectural blueprints, and business charts, are printed out on paper using this method. It can
either be a standalone device with an inbuilt processor or a peripheral component you add to your
computer system. When compared to a printer, it produces the data in hardcopy at a comparatively
slower rate. It is simple to draw parallel, continuous lines between points. It is primarily employed
in specialized fields like engineering, architecture, and drawing.
Figure 20: Plotter
C3. Monitor (Visual Display Unit): A monitor resembles a TV screen and is used for showing
output.
Figure 21: Monitor
D4. Microfilm
Documents are compressed and stored on photographic film as part of the microform storage
technique. Microfiche and microfilm are the two types of microforms. Microfiche is a flat sheet of
microfilm, whereas microfilm is a roll of images that resembles a movie reel. Microform storage can
readily store thousands of documents without taking up much space because the papers are typically
shrunk to roughly 1/25 of their normal size. A roll of photographic film is used in microfilm storage,
a type of microform storage, to hold images of your papers. Depending on the kind of documents
you need to keep, a typical roll of microfilm is either 16mm or 35mm in size.
Figure 22: Microfilm
D5. Microfiche
Instead of being a roll, microfiche is a flat sheet of microfilm. A typical microfilm is 4 inches by 5
inches and holds roughly 98 letter-sized pages. Microfiche sheets may be simpler to organize due to
their structure and shape, although having a much lesser storage capacity.
Figure 2.3: Microfiche
2.3 Storage Hardware
The types of computer memory are primarily categorized into a Memory Hierarchy based on their
speed, cost, and capacity.1 The two main categories are Primary Memory and Secondary
Memory (Storage), with Cache Memory often included as a distinct, high-speed tier.2
1. Primary Memory (Main Memory)3
Primary memory is directly accessed by the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and is essential for
running programs and active processes.4 It's generally faster, smaller in capacity, and more
expensive than secondary memory.
A. Random Access Memory (RAM)5
RAM is the computer's working memory.6 It holds the data and instructions that the CPU is
currently executing.7
• Volatility: It is volatile, meaning all data stored is lost when the power is turned off.8
• Function: Temporary storage for programs and data that are actively in use (e.g., your
browser, operating system, and open documents).9
• Types of RAM:
o DRAM (Dynamic RAM): The most common type used for the computer's main
memory.10 It stores each bit in a capacitor and transistor and requires constant
refreshing (periodic electrical charge) to maintain its data.11
o SRAM (Static RAM):12 Faster and more expensive than DRAM.13 It uses transistors
in a circuit (like a flip-flop) and does not need continuous refreshing.14 SRAM is
primarily used for Cache Memory.15
B. Read-Only Memory (ROM)
ROM stores firmware or critical instructions needed to start and operate the computer.16
• Volatility: It is non-volatile, meaning the data remains stored even when the power is turned
off.17
• Function: Stores the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI, which are essential
programs for the computer's initial startup (bootstrapping).18
• Types of ROM:
o PROM (Programmable ROM): Can be programmed once by the user.19
o EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased by exposing it to strong
ultraviolet light and then reprogrammed.20
o EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased and
reprogrammed electrically without removing it from the circuit board, making it the
most flexible.21
2. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small, extremely fast memory component that acts as a buffer between the CPU
and the slower main RAM.22 It stores frequently requested data and instructions so the CPU can
access them instantly.23
• Location: Built directly into the CPU chip (Level 1 and Level 2 cache)24 or physically close
to it (Level 3 cache).25
• Type: Constructed using SRAM to achieve maximum speed.26
• Function: Reduces the access time (latency) to the data, significantly boosting CPU
performance.27
3. Secondary Memory (Auxiliary/Storage)
Secondary memory is used for long-term, permanent storage of data, files, and programs.28 The
CPU cannot directly execute programs from secondary memory; data must first be loaded into
RAM.29
• Volatility: It is non-volatile.
• Capacity: It is much larger and cheaper than primary memory.
• Speed: It is slower than primary memory.
Type of Description Common Examples
Secondary
Memory
Solid State Uses flash memory (non-volatile semiconductor SSD (Solid State Drive),
chips) with no moving parts. Extremely fast for USB Flash Drives, SD
booting and loading applications. Cards.
Magnetic Uses magnetized material on spinning disks to HDD (Hard Disk Drive),
store data. Data is accessed by a read/write head. Magnetic Tape (used for
archives).
Optical30 Stores data that is read and written using a laser CD-ROM, DVD, Blu-ray
beam to detect microscopic pits and lands on the discs.32
disc surface.31
SSDS
A Solid State Drive (SSD), often referred to as a Solid State Disk, is a modern data storage device
that uses non-volatile flash memory to store persistent data.1 Unlike traditional Hard Disk Drives
(HDDs), SSDs contain no moving mechanical parts, hence the term "solid state," which provides
significant performance, durability, and efficiency advantages.2
🏗️ Architecture and Operation
The architecture of an SSD is fundamentally electronic, relying on two key components:3
1. NAND Flash Memory Chips: This is the actual storage medium.4 NAND flash is a type of
non-volatile memory, meaning it retains data even without power. Data is stored by
controlling the electrical charge on a floating gate transistor within memory cells.5
2. Controller: This is the embedded processor (CPU) that manages the drive's operations. The
controller is critical for:
o Mapping: Translating the logical block address requested by the operating system
into the physical location on the NAND chips.6
o Wear-Leveling: Distributing write and erase cycles evenly across all NAND cells to
maximize the drive's lifespan, as flash memory cells have a finite number of write
cycles.7
o Garbage Collection: Reclaiming blocks of memory that contain outdated data.8
o Error Correction Code (ECC): Detecting and correcting errors in stored data.
When the computer requests data, the controller quickly retrieves it electronically from the
appropriate NAND cells.9 Since there is no mechanical arm movement (seek time) or rotational
delay (latency) like in an HDD, access is nearly instant.10
💨 Performance and Advantages over HDD
SSDs have largely replaced HDDs as the primary storage medium in most modern consumer and
enterprise systems due to key advantages:
• Speed: SSDs are significantly faster, offering much higher data transfer rates (both
sequential and random read/write speeds) compared to HDDs.11 This results in faster boot
times, quicker application loading, and overall improved system responsiveness.12
• Durability and Reliability: With no moving parts, SSDs are highly resistant to physical
shock, vibration, and temperature extremes, making them ideal for laptops and portable
devices.13 They are less prone to mechanical failure.
• Energy Efficiency: SSDs consume less power than HDDs, which contributes to longer
battery life in laptops and lower energy costs in data centers.14
• Silence: They operate silently, as there are no spinning platters or moving heads.15
• Form Factor: SSDs come in much smaller and more flexible form factors, such as the M.2
format, which allows for extremely thin and light device designs.16
⚙️ Types of NAND Flash Memory
The performance, endurance, and cost of an SSD are determined by the type of NAND flash memory
used, categorized by the number of data bits stored per memory cell:17
NAND Type Bits Endurance (P/E Cost/Capacity Best Use Case
per Cycles)
Cell
SLC (Single- 1 Bit Very High Highest Cost, Lowest Enterprise, High-End
Level Cell) (100k) Capacity Caching, Mission-Critical
MLC (Multi- 2 Bits High (3k–10k) Moderate High-End Consumer,
Level Cell) Cost/Capacity Workstations
TLC (Triple- 3 Bits Medium (1k–3k) Low Cost, High Mainstream Consumer,
Level Cell) Capacity Gaming PCs
QLC (Quad- 4 Bits Low (100–1k) Lowest Cost, Highest Bulk Storage, Read-
Level Cell) Capacity Intensive Applications
3D NAND (V-NAND)
Modern SSDs use 3D NAND (or V-NAND), where memory cells are stacked vertically in multiple
layers, similar to a high-rise building.18 This technique significantly increases storage density and
capacity without dramatically increasing the physical size of the chip, improving cost-efficiency.
🔌 Form Factors and Interfaces
SSDs connect to the computer using different interfaces and come in various physical sizes:19
• 2.5-inch SATA:20 The standard SSD form factor, designed to fit in the same drive bays as
traditional laptop HDDs, connecting via the SATA interface (limited to $\sim 600 \text{
MB/s}$).
• M.2: A small, rectangular stick that plugs directly into an M.2 slot on the motherboard.21
M.2 drives can use either the slower SATA interface or the much faster NVMe (Non-
Volatile Memory Express) protocol.22
• NVMe (PCIe):23 NVMe is not a physical form factor but a communication protocol
specifically designed to take advantage of the high-speed data lanes of the PCI Express
(PCIe) bus, bypassing the SATA bottleneck and enabling speeds over $7000 \text{ MB/s}$.
MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES
Magnetic storage devices are a form of non-volatile secondary memory that use patterns of
magnetization in a magnetizable material to store digital data.1 The core principle involves a
read/write head manipulating the polarity of tiny magnetic particles on a medium (like a disk or
tape) to represent the binary values of '0' and '1'.2
🧲 Working Principle of Magnetic Storage
The process of reading and writing data involves the application of electromagnetic fields:3
1. Writing Data: The write head, which is a tiny electromagnet, generates a strong, localized
magnetic field as the medium moves beneath it.4 This field changes the orientation of the
magnetic particles on the surface, setting the direction of their magnetization to represent
either a binary '0' or '1'.5
2. Reading Data: The read head (often using a technology called Magnetoresistance, or MR)
passes over the magnetized areas.6 The magnetic fields generated by the aligned particles
induce a tiny electrical current (or change the resistance) in the read head.7 The device detects
these changes and translates the pattern of magnetizations back into binary data.
3. Non-Volatile: The magnetic alignment of the particles is permanent until intentionally
changed by a stronger magnetic field.8 This ensures data is retained even when power is
removed.9
💾 Types of Magnetic Storage Devices
Magnetic storage devices are classified by their form factor and access method.10
1. Hard Disk Drives (HDDs)
The most common form of magnetic storage, HDDs are the primary storage workhorse for servers,
data centers, and many personal computers.11
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• Structure: Consist of one or more rigid, circular platters made of aluminum, glass, or
ceramic, coated with a magnetic material.12 These platters are mounted on a central spindle
and spin at high speeds (e.g., 5400 or 7200 RPM).13
• Access: Data is stored in concentric circles called tracks, which are divided into sectors.14
The read/write head is mounted on an actuator arm that moves rapidly across the platters
to access any track location.15
• Access Method: Random Access.16 The head can jump directly to any track and sector on
the disk, making data retrieval relatively quick (though slower than SSDs).
• Application: Main storage for operating systems, large files, and servers; favored for its low
cost per gigabyte and high capacity.17
2. Magnetic Tape
Once used for audio and video, magnetic tape is now predominantly used for large-scale data backup
and archival.18
• Structure: A long, narrow strip of plastic film coated with a magnetic material, wound
around a reel or contained within a cartridge (e.g., Linear Tape-Open or LTO).19
• Access: To find a specific piece of data, the system must fast-forward or rewind the tape
until the data's location is reached.20
• Access Method: Sequential Access.21 This makes access much slower than HDDs or SSDs.
• Application: Long-term, high-capacity, off-site data archival and disaster recovery, valued
for its low cost and exceptional longevity (often decades).22
3. Obsolete Magnetic Media
These devices pioneered portable and removable storage but have been superseded by optical media
and flash drives.
• Floppy Disks: Small, flexible magnetic disks encased in a rigid square plastic casing. They
had very low capacity (typically 1.44 MB) and are now obsolete.23
• Zip Disks and Jazz Drives: Proprietary magnetic disks with higher capacity than floppy
disks, serving as interim backup solutions before CDs/DVDs and flash drives became
common.24
✅ Advantages and Disadvantages
Feature Advantages of Magnetic Storage Disadvantages of Magnetic Storage
Cost & High capacity at a very low cost per Cost is rising relative to QLC SSDs in
Capacity gigabyte (especially HDDs and smaller capacities.
tape).
Durability Data is non-volatile and stable over Less durable than SSDs due to
long periods (especially tape). moving parts; susceptible to physical
shock (HDDs).
Speed HDDs offer acceptable read/write Slower access times (latency and seek
speeds for general tasks. time) compared to SSDs.
Environmental Relatively good for long-term HDDs generate heat and noise due to
archival (tape) as it does not require spinning platters and moving arms.
continuous power.
Memory is a place where the information is saved in a computer system alongside the instructions.
Primary memory as well as secondary memory are the two categories into which a computer system's
memory can be divided.
Figure 2.3 Memory
2.3.1 Primary or Memory Storage
Primary Memory: The memory that resides inside a computer system is called primary memory.
The primary memory is transient in nature since data is kept there in the form of electronic charges.
The data that has been written to primary memory will be erased the instant the machine is turned
off. Bits and bytes serve as the memory's unit of measurement. One character in a computer system
requires one byte of memory space for storage. For instance, three bytes of memory space are
required to hold the word "RED" in a computer system. Two categories of primary memory can be
further separated.
ROM: The memory that resides inside a computer system is called primary memory. The primary
memory is transient in nature since data is kept there in the form of electronic charges. The data that
has been written to primary memory will be erased the instant the machine is turned off. Bits and
bytes serve as the memory's unit of measurement. One character in a computer system requires one
byte of memory space for storage. For instance, "RED" can be stored in a ROM, which stands for
"Read Only Memory," where we can only read. Whatever is written in a ROM chip cannot be
changed or removed.
ROM has a few variants as follows:
PROM stands for programmed read-only memory, where information can be entered only once and
cannot be changed after that. PROM can be purchased empty and subsequently loaded by the user
with a program. The contents of PROM cannot be changed once they have been loaded with the
program.
.
EPROM is sometimes referred to as erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), where
data may be repeatedly rewritten. The EPROM chip must be withdrawn from the CPU and subjected
to ultraviolet rays in order for new data to be written into it Electrically erasable programmable read-
only memory, or EEPROM, is a type of memory that can be repeatedly updated without being taken
out of the CPU using specialized electronic pulses.
RAM stands for random access memory, and as its name implies, we can read, write, and erase
anything that is stored inside. Because data can be read from and written onto a ram chip, RAM is
also referred to as read/write memory. Because it is volatile memory, any data entered into the RAM
is erased as soon as the computer is turned off. Various types of RAMS on a PC are:
DRAM (Dynamic RAM): It needs to be refreshed periodically by the CPU so that the data contained
in them is not lost.
Figure [Link] DRAM
SRAM (Static RAM): In it, data contained remains stored properly; therefore, it does not need to be
refreshed by the CPU. This type of RAM has a higher speed than DRAM and is costly, too.
Figure [Link] SRAM
2.3.2 Secondary Storage: Secondary memory is a form of external, permanent storage for
computers. Data is kept in this memory on hard drives, floppy disks, magnetic tape, and optical disks
as magnetic particles, pits, and pits.
[Link] Magnetic tape
An audio tape is comparable to magnetic tape. The start of the tape is marked with a metal foil
known as a marker. Data is saved one character at a time, with each character being recorded in
parallel across the width of the tape in either a 7-bit or 9-bit format. Records are used to store data
on tapes, and these records are spaced apart by an inter record gap (IRG). Only when there is a record
gap below the read/write heads does the tape stop moving. A single side of the tape is covered with
a magnetic material. Data is periodically read from the cassette and written to it. Before it is able to
identify a certain record, the machine must read each record that is in front of it, which takes time.
The majority of tapes are used for storage purposes instead of being sometimes utilized for writing
and reading.
Figure [Link] Magnetic tape
[Link] Floppy Disk
A floppy disk is created using mylar material that has been magnetic oxide-coated. The round
portions of this flexible material are either 3.5 or 5.25 inches in diameter. They are known as floppy
disks because of the flexible material that was used in their manufacture. These were portable,
inexpensive, and small, making it easy to transport them from one location to another. Data is kept
on the tracks of a floppy disk as magnetic particles. The disk is mounted into the disk drive using a
hub in the center. There are many chances that a floppy disk will become unusable because of its
exposure to dust, scratches, etc. because a large slit is provided for the read/write head to access the
data. The floppy disk allowed for the simple storing and retrieval of data. Compared to magnetic
tape, the floppy disk had a longer lifespan, but the data security was reduced.
Figure [Link] Floppy Disk
[Link] Hard Disk
In order to store large amounts of data, magnetic disks, often known as the "hard disk" or Winchester
disk, were first created in 1956. The round platters in a hard drive are covered in magnetizable
material and can be constructed of any metal, including aluminum. The disk capacity affects the
number of platters. The capacity of the disk to store data increases with the number of platters. It is
necessary to format the disk before you can save any data on it.
Figure [Link] Hard Disk
That's a timely question, as Hard Disk Drive (HDD) capacity is consistently being pushed upward,
driven primarily by the massive data storage needs of cloud providers and enterprise data centers.1
As of late 2025, the maximum capacity for commercially available Hard Disk Drives is in the range
of 36 Terabytes (TB), with drives of 30TB and 32TB also being standard high-end offerings.2
Here is a breakdown of the current landscape and the future roadmap for HDD capacities:
📈 Maximum Available Capacity (Late 2025)
The highest-capacity internal HDDs are found in the Enterprise/Data Center segment, which relies
on new magnetic recording technologies to achieve record density:
Segment Maximum Capacity Key Key Technology
Brands/Series
Enterprise / Up to 36 TB Seagate Exos M, HAMR (Heat-Assisted
Data Center (Shipping/Launched) WD Ultrastar Magnetic Recording) / ePMR
(Energy-Assisted PMR)
High-End Up to 24 TB Seagate IronWolf CMR (Conventional Magnetic
Consumer / (Commonly available) Pro, WD Red Pro Recording) or SMR (Shingled
NAS Magnetic Recording)
External Up to 24 TB Seagate Expansion, Often contain the same drives
Desktop (Commonly available) WD Elements as the consumer/NAS
Drives category.
Portable Up to 6 TB (Max WD My Passport, Limited by the physical 2.5-
External Capacity) various others inch form factor.
Drives
Key Capacity Milestones:
• 36 TB: Has been achieved by manufacturers like Seagate (e.g., Exos M) and represents the
cutting edge using new technologies like HAMR.3
• 32 TB: A capacity widely supported by leading manufacturers (Western Digital, Seagate,
Toshiba) for their nearline enterprise series.
🔬 The Technology Driving Capacity Growth
To exceed the previous limits of around 20TB, manufacturers have implemented new technologies,
with the main focus on increasing areal density (more data bits per square inch):
1. HAMR (Heat-Assisted Magnetic Recording): This is the key technology enabling the
jump to 30TB+.4 It uses a tiny laser to briefly heat the recording platter surface during
writing, allowing the head to write data on a much smaller, denser area.5
2. MAMR/ePMR (Microwave-Assisted/Energy-Assisted PMR): These techniques use
different methods to make the writing process more efficient, enabling higher densities for
capacities like 28TB and 32TB.
3. Helium Sealing: All ultra-high-capacity drives use helium instead of air inside the enclosure.
Helium reduces friction and turbulence, allowing manufacturers to fit more, thinner platters
(typically 9-11 platters) into the standard 3.5-inch form factor.
🗺️ Capacity Roadmap for the Near Future
The race for storage capacity is expected to continue rapidly, with the 50TB mark targeted in the
next few years:
Capacity Expected Timeline Technology Enabler
Goal
40 TB Volume shipment Advanced HAMR and UltraSMR techniques.
targeted for 2026
50 TB Expected by 2027–2028 Further refinement of HAMR technology and increased
platter count.
100 TB Targeted by 2030 Advanced HAMR (e.g., Mozaic 5 platform) and
possibly Bit-Patterned Media (BPM).
In summary, while consumers typically buy HDDs in the 10TB-24TB range, the largest available
capacity in late 2025 is 36 TB, with an immediate roadmap that quickly pushes capacities toward
40TB and 50TB to meet the exploding demand from cloud storage and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
data centers.6
Would you like to know more about the cost difference or the speed difference between these high-
capacity HDDs and Solid-State Drives (SSDs)?
[Link] Optical Disk
The newest hardware innovations and faster system processing speeds created a demand for speedy
and efficient storage. In earlier data storage devices, data was stored as magnetic particles, but with
the advancement of optical technology, it is now possible to store data as pits, which are tiny particles
made by a laser beam. Data can be stored very close to one another because they are stored on an
optical disk as light particles, which don't produce a magnetic field. In optical disks, streams of
digital data are burned onto a thin layer of metal or other material that is deposited on a disk in the
shape of tiny pits. These pit patterns are read by a laser light beam. The disk has a maximum storage
capacity of 600 MB.
Figure [Link] Optical Disk
Optical disks are available in the following forms:
[Link]/CD-ROM (Compact Disc or CD-Read-Only Memory): This is a very commonly used term
and usually refers to non-writable discs.
[Link]-R (Writable Discs, also known as CD Recordable): A user can only burn (store) data on a CD-
R once, or numerous times when utilizing multisession mode, until the disk's storage capacity is
reached. Data cannot be altered or erased after it has been written.
[Link] Discs/CD Rewritable, or CD-RW. This implies that a user has the ability to not only
write data but also to remove existing data from the disc and replace it with new data.
4. Digital Versatile Disc/DVD Read-Only Memory (DVD/DVD-ROM). offers the same
functionality as a CD-ROM, but a DVD typically has six times more storage space than a CD.
5.(Writable DVD or DVD Recordable; DVD-R/DVD+R). bigger capacity with the same features as
CD-R.
6.(Rewritable DVD/DVD Rewritable) DVD-RW/DVD+RW. higher capacity with the same features
as CD-RW.
[Link] or dual layer DVD. The disc space on double-layer discs is double that of a typical DVD.
Blu-ray disc recordable, or BD-R. It is a Blu-ray disc that can only have data written on it once.
8. BD-RE (Blu-ray Disc Rewritable). It is a Blu-ray disc that is recordable and erasable (BD-RE),
meaning that it can be recorded on and erased as many times as necessary. The Blu-ray format for
digital optical disc data storage replaces the DVD format in terms of data storage. Hours of high-
definition and ultra-high-definition footage can be stored on Blu-ray discs.
[Link] Pen Drive
The term "pen drive" (often known as "PD" by users) refers to a portable storage device that may be
quickly transported from one location to another. A pen drive is relatively simple to use; all a user
needs to do to get it started is insert it into a Universal Serial Bus (USB) connection.
Figure [Link] Pen Drive
[Link] Flash Memory
Flash memory is a type of nonvolatile memory that consists of memory "blocks" that may be erased
and reprogrammed. It functions similarly to an EEPROM, with the sole exception that flash memory
is faster since data is erased at the block level rather than the byte level as it is in EEPROMs. Flash
memory is widely used for preserving control code, which is similar to the basic input/output system
(BIOS) of a desktop or laptop computer. Flash memory lets you do block (rather than byte) size
writing, which makes updating the BIOS when it needs to be changed (rewritten) simple.
Figure [Link]: Flash Memory
2.3.2 Data Access Methods
[Link] In the direct access method, the same way that the disk was thought of as being divided
into equal-sized blocks, the files are viewed as a series of blocks or records. This technique has the
advantage of allowing us to randomly access any block. The relative access method is another name
for the direct access method. The operating system is the only one who knows the precise block
address. The operating system uses the relative block number that a user provides when requesting
access to a specific block to determine the exact block address. Hard drives, CD-ROMs, memory
sticks or flash disks, and similar devices can all use direct access methods. Direct access enables the
possibility of random access.
[Link] Sequential Access Methods
A technique for accessing data from a storage medium is called sequential access, often referred to
as serial access. Sequential access requires the device in question to traverse across all of the data to
find the location it is attempting to read or write to. This approach is frequently compared to random
access, in which the computer may go directly to a predetermined point in memory. Sequential
access is frequently used in conjunction with tape drives. It is appropriate for tape drives because
they only allow serial or sequential data access.
2.3.3 Unit of Measurement of Storage Hardware
A storage device's capacity is frequently expressed in units of kilobytes, megabytes, and gigabytes.
The following information may aid readers in comprehending these units. One binary digit, or bit,
can represent either a 0 (zero) or a 1. The smallest unit of measurement is a bit. Eight bits make up
a byte, which may hold values between 0 and 255. You can think of a byte as the amount of room
needed to store one character.
A Kilobyte = 1024bytes; Approximately A kilobyte (KB) = 1000 bytes
1,000,000 bytes = 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1000 Kilobytes
1,000,000,000 bytes = 1 Gigabyte (GB)= 1000 Megabytes
1,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1000 Gigabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Petabyte (PB)= 1000 Terabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes = 1 Exabyte (EB)= 1000 Petabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Zettabyte (ZB) = 1000 Exabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Yottabyte (YB)= 1000 Zettabytes
2.4 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU) is frequently referred to as the computer's brain.
The Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) make up the CPU. Additionally, the CPU
has a number of registers, temporary storage spaces for data and instructions. The mathematical and
logical operations carried out by the ALU on the data provided to it. CU is in charge of planning
how information and instructions will be processed. The other computer units' activity is managed
and coordinated by CU. Registers are used by the CPU to store data and instructions while
processing. Instructions and data are stored in memory prior to execution by the CPU, which carries
out the stored program instructions. The memory provides information and instructions to the CPU
for processing. It does the arithmetic and logical processes necessary for data processing while
interpreting the program instructions. The processed data or result is then sent to the memory. CPU
oversees the activities of other components of the computer and serves as an administrator. The
CPU, sometimes referred to as the microprocessor, is created as a single Integrated Circuit (IC) chip.
The motherboard of the computer hosts the CPU and connects it to the rest of the hardware. The
motherboard is a circuit board with electronic circuits engraved on it.
Figure 2.4 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2.4.1 CPU Components
An input device is used to enter data into a computer system. The control unit guides the data into
the memory once it has reached the central processor unit. This means that as soon as data is entered
into a computer system, it is initially stored in the system's primary memory, known as random-
access memory (RAM). Data from the memory is transferred to the arithmetic and logical unit when
a command is delivered to a system for processing. The outcome of processing is again directed to
a system's memory by the control unit. Once an instruction is issued to produce the output, this result
from the memory is directed to an output device by the control unit. Let us understand this with an
example.
10 Let X = 35
20 Let Y = 45
30 Let Z = X + Y
40 Print Z
50 End
A memory location with the names X and Y will open in the RAM of the system as soon as the
variables X and Y are given the values 35 and 45, respectively. The next directive is Z = X + Y. The
ALU will now process the data from the RAM, and the result (which is 35 + 45 = 80) will be saved
in another position "Z" in the system's RAM. When the control unit receives the order to "print Z,"
it will read the value stored at location Z in the RAM and show it on the computer system's monitor.
The command “End” will tell the computer that program is over.
Central Processing Unit: A computer system's central processing unit (CPU) is frequently referred
to as its brain. Similar to how the brain in humans directs all activity, in a computer system the CPU
directs all processing activities. The following are its primary components:
Arithmetic and Logic Unit: All of the operations take place in the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU).
The ALU performs logical analysis and decision-making in addition to doing mathematical
calculations. The capabilities that set a computer system apart from a calculator are logical
comparison and decision-making.
Control Unit: The control unit (CU) serves as the system's supervisor. The CU is in charge of
coordinating and synchronizing all tasks carried out by a computer system. The CU controls the
movement of data from one area of the CPU to another and vice versa, acting as a traffic cop. The
management of the process of loading and unloading programs and data from memory falls under
the purview of the control unit. It is also in charge of sequentially carrying out (executing) program
instructions. The concept of a "register" to store interim computational values is included in this.
Memory: A primary memory is memory that is located inside a central processing unit. The device
is shaped like a silicon chip, and data is stored there as electronic pulses. The numbers "1" and "0"
represent the existence and absence of current, respectively. This memory stores information as
binary 0s and 1s.
2.4.2 Functions of Main Memory
[Link] CPU and main memory are in direct communication.
[Link] information and instructions are kept in memory to be processed later.
[Link] main memory, also known as the primary memory, momentarily stores instructions and data
before transferring the task to the CPU for additional processing.
4. The main memory takes control of storing the data and tasks that are now needed for execution.
When the OS loads itself, all of the important operating system (OS) programs are already installed
in the computer's main memory.
2.4.3 Summary
This chapter has introduced the student to all the computer system's physical components referred
to as computer hardware. This consists of the input processing units; keyboards, microphones, mice,
output processing units; printers, plotters, speakers, and storage units; floppy disks, hard disks
optical disks etc.
Exercises:
1. Discuss the various types of computer hardware.
2. Describe the basic components of CPU and its functions.
3. Discuss the block diagram of a computer system.
4. What do you understand about input devices? What are the various input devices?
5. What do you understand about output devices? What are the various output devices?
6. What is meant by secondary storage or secondary memory? Discuss the various storage devices
used in a computer system.
7. What do you understand about memory? How many types of memory are there?
References
1. Paul B., Andrew G and Simon H (2015); Business Information Systems Technology,
Development and Management for the E-Business, ISBN 978-0-273-73646-2, 5th edition, 2015, Pg
1-704.
2. Gupta. C. P & Goyal. k (2020); Computer Concepts and Management Information Systems
Mercury Learning and Information, ISBN: 978-1-68392-586-6 2020. Pg 1-245.
[Link] V (2021); PC Hardware Explained, ISBN 978-93-5457-183-1. 26 December 2021, Pg 1-
89.
4. Kevin W. (2017); Elluminet Press Essential Computer Hardware, 2017, Pg 1-167.
[Link] accessed 15th April 2023
[Link] accessed 15th April 2023