Kinesiology Chapter 1 Study Guide

Part 1: Introduction to Kinesiology and Anatomical

Positioning
Key Definitions
● Kinesiology: Study of motion or human movement.
● Anatomical Kinesiology: Focuses on the human musculoskeletal and
musculotendinous systems.
● Biomechanics: Application of mechanical physics to human motion.
● Structural Kinesiology: Study of muscles involved in the science of movement,
including skeletal and muscular structures.

Importance of Kinesiology
● Essential for understanding large muscle groups to teach strengthening, improvement,
and maintenance of optimal body function.
● Enables professionals to explain how and why specific exercises are used in strength
and conditioning, particularly for athletes.
● Helps physical educators analyze and improve specific aspects of physical conditioning
through skill analysis and exercise physiology.

Human Body Composition

● Bones: Vary in size and shape, especially at joints, which dictate movement possibilities
or limitations.
● Muscles: Over 600 in the human body, differing in size, shape, and structure across
body parts.

Anatomical Positioning
● Anatomical Position: Standing upright, facing forward, feet parallel and close, palms
facing forward.
● Fundamental Position: Similar to anatomical position, but arms are at the sides with
palms facing the body.

Anatomical Directional Terminology

● Anterior: In front.
● Posterior: Behind.
● Antero-inferior: In front and below.
● Antero-superior: In front and above.
● Antero-lateral: In front and to the side (outside).
● Antero-medial: In front and toward a midline.
 ● Contralateral: Opposite side.
● Ipsilateral: Same side.
● Bilateral: Both right and left sides.
● Inferior: Below another structure.
● Superior: Above another structure.
● Inferior-lateral: Below and to the outside.
● Inferior-medial: Below and toward a midline.
● Superior-lateral: Above and to the outside.
● Superior-medial: Above and toward a midline.
● Caudal: Below (inferior).
● Cephalic/Rostral: Toward the head or above.
● Caudacephalad: Directionally from tail to head along the long axis of the body (same as
cephalic or superior).
● Cephalocaudal: Directionally from head to tail along the long axis of the body (same as
caudal or inferior).
● Deep: Beneath the surface (muscles/tissues).
● Superficial: Near the surface.
● Distal: Away from the body’s center or point of origin.
● Proximal: Nearest the trunk or point of origin.
● Lateral: On or to the side, farther from the median or midsagittal plane.
● Medial/Median: Closer to the middle or center, nearer to the median or midsagittal
plane.
● Dexter: Right side.
● Sinister: Left side.
● Dorsal: Back or posterior.
● Ventral: Front or anterior (belly/abdomen).
● Palmar/Volar: Relating to the palm of the hand or the sole of the foot.
● Plantar: Relating to the sole or undersurface of the foot.
● Fibular/Peroneal: Lateral side of the knee, leg, ankle, or foot.
● Tibial: Medial side of the knee, leg, ankle, or foot.
● Radial: Lateral side of the forearm or hand.
● Ulnar: Medial side of the forearm or hand.

Planes of Motion
● Definition: Imaginary two-dimensional surfaces through which limbs or body segments
move, revolving around an axis (90-degree relationship).
● Three Traditional Planes:
○ Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into right and left halves. Example exercises:
Sit-ups, bicep curls. Rotates around the frontal axis (medial-lateral, X-axis;
involves flexion/extension).
○ Frontal Plane: Divides the body into front and back halves. Example exercise:
Jumping jacks. Rotates around the sagittal axis (anterior-posterior, Z-axis;
involves abduction/adduction).
○ Transverse Plane: Divides the body into top and bottom halves. Example
exercise: Spinal rotation. Rotates around the vertical axis (superior-inferior, Y-
axis; involves rotary movements).
● Diagonal Plane: Combines movements from traditional planes, occurring in joints
capable of multi-plane motion (e.g., high/low diagonal for upper/lower extremities).
Rotates around the diagonal/oblique axis.
Axes of Motion
● Frontal Axis (X-axis): Runs side to side, perpendicular to the sagittal plane. Associated
with sagittal plane movements (flexion/extension).
● Sagittal Axis (Z-axis): Runs front to back, perpendicular to the frontal plane. Associated
with frontal plane movements (abduction/adduction).
● Vertical Axis (Y-axis): Runs superior to inferior, perpendicular to the transverse plane.
Associated with transverse plane movements (rotation).
● Diagonal/Oblique Axis: Runs at a right angle to the diagonal plane, supporting
combined movements.

Part 2: Joint Classifications

Joint Classifications
Joints (articulations or arthroses) are connections between bones, typically allowing movement.
Range of motion is similar across humans but limited by bone configuration, ligaments, and
surrounding muscles. Joints are classified by structure and movement characteristics into three
major types:

1. Synarthrodial (Immovable Joints):

○ Allow minimal to no movement.
○ Examples: Sutures in the skull, teeth fitting into the mandible or maxilla.
2. Amphiarthrodial (Slightly Movable Joints):
○ Allow slight movement, connected by strong ligaments or interosseous
membranes.
○ Bones may or may not touch at the joint.
○ Types:
■ Symphysis: Joint separated by a fibrocartilage pad. Examples: Pubic
symphysis, intervertebral discs.
■ Syndesmosis: Bones joined by a strong ligament or interosseous
membrane. Examples: Coracoclavicular joint, distal tibiofibular joint.
■ Synchondrosis: Joint separated by hyaline cartilage. Examples: Costal
cartilage joints connecting ribs to the sternum.
3. Diarthrodial (Synovial Joints):
○ Freely movable, with a sleeve-like joint capsule containing synovial fluid to
lubricate the joint cavity.
○ Articular (hyaline) cartilage covers bone ends, absorbing shock and protecting
bones.
○ Synovial fluid is absorbed during joint unloading (distraction) and secreted during
weight-bearing/compression.
○ Maintaining normal range of motion is critical for joint health and function.
○ Some joints have specialized fibrocartilage discs (e.g., medial and lateral
menisci, glenoid labrum, acetabular labrum) for shock absorption, load
distribution, and stability.
○ Degrees of freedom correspond to cardinal planes: 1 plane = 1 degree, 2 planes
= 2 degrees, 3 planes = 3 degrees.

Types of Diarthrodial Joints

 1. Arthrodial (Gliding) Joints:
○ Two flat or plane surfaces articulate, allowing limited motion in one joint, often
working in series for greater motion.
○ Examples: Vertebral facets in the spinal column, intercarpal, and intertarsal
joints.
○ Motions: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, diagonal abduction/adduction,
rotation, circumduction.
2. Ginglymus (Hinge) Joints:
○ Uniaxial, allowing motion in one plane.
○ Examples: Elbow, knee, ankle joints.
○ Motions: Flexion, extension.
3. Trochoid (Pivot/Screw) Joints:
○ Uniaxial, with a bony pivot rotating within a ring or vice versa.
○ Examples: Atlantoaxial joint (odontoid process in a bony ring), proximal and distal
radioulnar joints.
○ Motions: Rotation.
4. Condyloid (Knuckle) Joints:
○ Biaxial ball-and-socket joints with an oval concave surface fitting into an oval
convex surface.
○ Examples: 2nd–5th metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joints, radiocarpal joint.
○ Motions: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction.
5. Enarthrodial (Ball-and-Socket) Joints:
○ Multiaxial, with a rounded head fitting into a concave surface.
○ Examples: Hip, shoulder joints.
○ Motions: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, diagonal abduction/adduction,
rotation, circumduction.
6. Sellar (Saddle) Joints:
○ Triaxial, with reciprocal concave and convex surfaces.
○ Example: First carpometacarpal joint (thumb).
○ Motions: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, slight rotation.

Joint Stability and Mobility

● Inverse Relationship: More mobile joints are less stable, and vice versa.
● Factors Affecting Stability and Mobility:
○ Bones: Shape and fit at the joint.
○ Cartilage: Provides shock absorption and stability (e.g., menisci, labra).
○ Ligaments and Connective Tissue: Adapt by lengthening under tension or
shortening if lax.
○ Surrounding Musculature: Contributes to stability.
○ Proprioception and Motor Control: Enhances joint control and stability.
● Hereditary and Developmental Factors: Influence bone and soft tissue variations
affecting joint function.

Part 3: Range of Motion and Specific Movements

Range of Motion (ROM)
 ● Definition: The degree to which a joint can be freely and painlessly moved, measured in
degrees (0–360) using a goniometer.
● Measurement: Describes the change in position of bones relative to each other at the
articular surfaces of a joint.
● Examples:
○ Knee flexion: Lower leg moves closer to the thigh, reducing the joint angle.
○ Hip flexion: Thigh moves closer to the torso, reducing the joint angle.

Specific Joint Movements

● Flexion: Bending movement decreasing the joint angle, typically in the sagittal plane
(e.g., elbow flexion when the hand moves toward the shoulder).
● Extension: Straightening movement increasing the joint angle, typically in the sagittal
plane (e.g., elbow extension when the hand moves away from the shoulder).
● Abduction: Lateral movement away from the anatomical position in the frontal plane
(e.g., raising arms or thighs horizontally to the side).
● Adduction: Movement toward or across the midline in the frontal plane (e.g., lowering
arms or thighs back to anatomical position).
● Circumduction: Circular movement combining flexion, extension, abduction, and
adduction, forming a cone or arc (e.g., shoulder or hip moving in a circular fashion
around a fixed point).
● Diagonal Abduction: Movement of a limb through a diagonal plane away from the
midline.
● Diagonal Adduction: Movement of a limb through a diagonal plane toward or across
the midline.
● External Rotation (Lateral Rotation): Rotary movement around the longitudinal axis of
a bone away from the midline, in the transverse plane.
● Internal Rotation (Medial Rotation): Rotary movement around the longitudinal axis of a
bone toward the midline, in the transverse plane.
● Eversion: Turning the subtalar and tarsal joints outward or laterally in the frontal plane
(e.g., standing with weight on the inner edge of the foot).
● Inversion: Turning the subtalar and tarsal joints inward or medially in the frontal plane
(e.g., standing with weight on the outer edge of the foot).
● Dorsiflexion: Flexion movement of the ankle, moving the top of the foot toward the
anterior tibia.
● Plantar Flexion: Extension movement of the ankle, moving the foot away from the body.
● Pronation (Ankle/Foot): Combination of dorsiflexion, subtalar eversion, and forefoot
abduction (e.g., toe-out posture).
● Supination (Ankle/Foot): Combination of plantar flexion, subtalar inversion, and
forefoot adduction (e.g., toe-in posture).
● Pronation (Radioulnar Joint): Internal rotation of the radius, lying diagonally across the
ulna, resulting in a palm-down forearm position.
● Supination (Radioulnar Joint): External rotation of the radius, lying parallel to the ulna,
resulting in a palm-up forearm position.

Shoulder Girdle Movements

● Depression: Inferior movement of the shoulder girdle, or returning to normal position
after elevation (e.g., lowering shoulders after a shrug).
● Elevation: Superior movement of the shoulder girdle (e.g., shrugging shoulders).
 ● Protraction (Scapular Abduction): Forward movement of the shoulder girdle away
from the spine.
● Retraction (Scapular Adduction): Backward movement of the shoulder girdle toward
the spine.
● Downward Rotation: Rotary movement of the scapula with the inferior angle moving
medially and downward.
● Upward Rotation: Rotary movement of the scapula with the inferior angle moving
laterally and upward.

Humeral (Glenohumeral) Joint Movements

● Horizontal Abduction (Transverse Abduction/Horizontal Extension): Movement of
the humerus in a horizontal plane away from the midline.
● Horizontal Adduction (Transverse Adduction/Horizontal Flexion): Movement of the
humerus in a horizontal plane toward the midline.
● Scapular Plane Abduction: Glenohumeral abduction in a plane 30–45° between the
sagittal and frontal planes.

Spinal Movements
● Lateral Flexion (Side Bending): Movement of the head or trunk laterally away from the
midline (abduction of the spine).
● Reduction: Return of the spinal column to anatomical position from lateral flexion
(adduction of the spine).

Wrist and Hand Movements

● Palmar Flexion: Flexion movement of the wrist with the palmar (anterior) side of the
hand moving toward the anterior forearm.
● Dorsal Flexion (Dorsiflexion of Wrist): Extension movement of the wrist with the
dorsal (posterior) side of the hand moving toward the posterior forearm.
● Radial Flexion (Radial Deviation): Abduction movement at the wrist, moving the thumb
side of the hand toward the forearm.
● Ulnar Flexion (Ulnar Deviation): Adduction movement at the wrist, moving the little
finger side of the hand toward the forearm.
● Opposition (Thumb): Diagonal movement of the thumb across the palmar surface to
contact the hand or fingers.
● Reposition (Thumb): Diagonal movement of the thumb returning to anatomical position
from opposition.

Part 4: Levers in the Human Body

Levers Overview
● Definition: A lever is a rigid bar (e.g., bone) that rotates about an axis of rotation or
fulcrum (e.g., joint), with force (e.g., muscle contraction) applied to move a resistance
(e.g., body segment or external weight).
● Purpose: Humans move through a system of levers, which cannot be changed but can
be utilized more efficiently to improve simple or complex movements.
 ● Components of a Lever System:
○ Axis (A): The fulcrum or poingit of rotation (joint).
○ Force (F): Applied by muscle contraction, typically at the muscle’s insertion point
on the bone (not the muscle belly).
○ Resistance (R): The weight or resistance to be moved, which can vary from
minimal (e.g., bone weight) to maximum (e.g., external load).
● Note: Proper use of levers enhances efficiency, while improper use (habitual poor
mechanics) can reduce effectiveness.

Types of Levers
Levers are classified based on the arrangement of the axis (A), force (F), and resistance (R)
along the rigid bar (bone):

1. First-Class Lever:
○ Arrangement: Axis (A) is between the force (F) and resistance (R) (F-A-R).
○ Characteristics:
■ Produces balanced movement when the axis is midway between F and R
(mechanical advantage, MA = 1; e.g., seesaw).
■ Produces speed and range of motion when the axis is closer to the force
(MA < 1; e.g., triceps in elbow extension).
■ Produces force when the axis is closer to the resistance (MA > 1; e.g.,
crowbar).
○ Human Body Example: Head on the neck during flexion/extension (agonist and
antagonist muscles contract simultaneously on either side of the joint axis;
agonist provides force, antagonist provides resistance).
■ Elbow Extension Example: Elbow joint (A), triceps insertion on the
olecranon process of the ulna (F), forearm weight (R). When the shoulder
is fully flexed (arm behind ear), the triceps applies force to extend the
elbow against the forearm’s resistance.
2. Second-Class Lever:
○ Arrangement: Resistance (R) is between the axis (A) and force (F) (A-R-F).
○ Characteristics:
■ Produces force movements, as a large resistance can be moved with a
small force (MA > 1).
■ Relatively rare in the human body.
○ Examples: Wheelbarrow, nutcracker, loosening a lug nut, raising the body on
toes.
○ Human Body Example: Plantar flexion of the foot to raise the body on toes.
■ Components: Ball of the foot (A), plantar flexors (e.g., gastrocnemius)
applying force at the calcaneus (F), body weight at the tibiofibular
articulation (R).
3. Third-Class Lever:
○ Arrangement: Force (F) is between the axis (A) and resistance (R) (A-F-R).
○ Characteristics:
■ Produces speed and range of motion but requires significant force to
move even a small resistance (MA < 1).
■ Most common lever type in the human body.
○ Examples: Paddling a boat, shoveling (lower hand applies force, upper hand is
the axis, shovel load is the resistance).
○ Human Body Example: Elbow flexion with the biceps brachii.
 ■ Components: Elbow joint (A), biceps insertion on the radial tuberosity
(F), forearm/hand weight (R). The biceps pulls on the radius to flex the
elbow, with the ulna remaining stable.

Mechanical Advantage (MA)

● Definition: The ratio of the force arm (distance from the axis to the point of force
application) to the resistance arm (distance from the axis to the point of resistance
application).
● Equation: MA = Length of Force Arm / Length of Resistance Arm.
● Interpretations:
○ MA = 1: Balanced movement (force arm = resistance arm; e.g., first-class lever
like a seesaw).
○ MA < 1: Favors speed and range of motion (force arm shorter than resistance
arm; common in third-class levers).
○ MA > 1: Favors force production (force arm longer than resistance arm; common
in second-class levers).

Key Notes for Levers

● Force Application Point: Always at the muscle’s insertion point on the bone, not the
muscle belly (critical for lab assignments).
● Efficiency: Proper anatomical leverage systems improve movement efficiency, while
improper habits reduce effectiveness.

Part 5: Types of Muscle Contractions (Muscle Actions)

Overview
● Definition: Muscle contractions (or muscle actions) occur when a muscle develops
tension in response to a stimulus, used to cause, control, or prevent joint movement.
● Purpose:
○ Initiate or accelerate movement of a body segment.
○ Slow down or decelerate movement of a body segment.
○ Prevent movement of a body segment against external forces.
● Terminology Note: The term "muscle contraction" can be misleading as some actions
do not shorten the muscle; "muscle action" is increasingly used.

Types of Muscle Actions

1. Passive Movement:
○ Movement at a joint without muscle contraction, caused by external forces (e.g.,
gravity, another person, or object) in the presence of muscle relaxation.
2. Isometric Contraction:
○ Definition: Active tension develops in the muscle, but the joint angle remains
constant (static contraction).
○ Purpose: Maintains a stable position or prevents movement against
external/internal forces.
 ○ Example: Holding a plank position, where muscles maintain joint angles without
movement.
3. Isotonic Contraction:
○ Definition: Active tension causes or controls joint movement, with changing joint
angles (dynamic contraction).
○ Subtypes:
■ Concentric Contraction:
■ Muscle develops tension and shortens, producing enough force to
overcome resistance.
■ Occurs against gravity or external resistance (positive
contraction).
■ Causes acceleration of movement, with muscle force greater than
resistance.
■ Examples:
■ Biceps brachii concentrically contracting during elbow
flexion to lift a weight.
■ Triceps concentrically contracting to extend the elbow in a
pulley system to lift a weight.
■ Mechanics: Typically, the proximal attachment is stabilized, so
the distal attachment moves more, pulling both ends of the muscle
toward its center.
■ Eccentric Contraction:
■ Muscle develops tension while lengthening, controlling the
descent of resistance.
■ Occurs with gravity or external resistance (negative contraction),
where resistance overcomes muscle force but is controlled.
■ Decelerates movement, with muscle force less than resistance.
■ Examples:
■ Biceps brachii eccentrically contracting to lower a weight
during elbow extension.
■ Quadriceps eccentrically contracting to control knee flexion
during a squat descent.
■ Mechanics: Typically, the distal attachment moves more as both
ends of the muscle move away from its center.
■ Note: Sometimes called a muscle action rather than a contraction
due to lengthening, but still involves active muscle contraction.
4. Isokinetic Contraction:
○ Definition: A specialized dynamic exercise where muscle contraction (concentric
or eccentric) occurs at a constant speed or velocity throughout the movement.
○ Requirements: Specialized equipment (e.g., Biodex, Cybex, Lido) to maintain
constant velocity.
○ Purpose: Used in rehabilitation and performance training to ensure consistent
muscle loading.

Key Notes for Muscle Actions

● Exercise Application: Most exercises involve a combination of isometric, concentric,
and eccentric contractions for muscle development.
● Contraction vs. Action: Understand that "contraction" does not always mean
shortening (e.g., eccentric actions involve lengthening under tension).
Study Tips
● Memorize Directional Terms: Use flashcards for terms like anterior, posterior, proximal,
distal, caudacephalad, cephalocaudal, etc., with body part examples.
● Visualize Planes and Axes: Draw or use a model to connect planes (sagittal, frontal,
transverse) and axes (frontal, sagittal, vertical) to exercises.
● Apply to Exercises: Identify the plane of motion and axis for exercises (e.g., sit-up =
sagittal plane, frontal axis).
● Understand Anatomical Position: Use as a reference for directional terms and
movement descriptions.
● Review Muscle, Bone, and Joint Roles: Focus on how their size, shape, structure, and
classification influence movement and stability.
● Learn Joint Classifications: Create a chart for synarthrodial, amphiarthrodial, and
diarthrodial joints, including subtypes, examples, and motions.
● Practice Joint Motions: Relate diarthrodial joint types to their degrees of freedom and
specific movements (e.g., hinge = 1 degree, flexion/extension).
● Master Range of Motion Terms: Use diagrams to visualize specific movements (e.g.,
dorsiflexion vs. plantar flexion, pronation vs. supination) and practice identifying them in
real-world activities.
● Group Movements by Joint: Organize movements by joint (e.g., shoulder girdle,
glenohumeral, wrist) to understand their unique motions and planes.
● Understand Levers: Create diagrams for first-, second-, and third-class levers, labeling
the axis (A), force (F), and resistance (R), and associate with human body examples
(e.g., elbow extension = first-class, plantar flexion = second-class, elbow flexion = third-
class).
● Calculate Mechanical Advantage: Practice calculating MA for different lever types and
relate to their function (force vs. speed/range of motion).
● Learn Muscle Actions: Create a table comparing isometric, concentric, eccentric, and
isokinetic contractions, including definitions, examples, and purposes (e.g., concentric
for lifting, eccentric for lowering). Practice identifying these in exercises like bicep curls
or squats.