PHYSICS

Chapter 1 : Heat and Energy

Temperature

-most materials expand when their temperature is increased

-A measure of temperature is obtained using a thermometer.

-Mercury and alcohol are the liquids used in most liquid-in-glass thermometers.

There are several scales and units exist for measuring temperature. The most common are:
Celsius (denoted °C),
Fahrenheit (denoted °F),
Kelvin (denoted K;)

A temperature T of five degrees is 5 °C (five degrees Celsius)

A temperature change ΔT of five degrees is 5 C° (five Celsius degrees)

Conversion Between Degrees Celsius and Degrees Fahrenheit

9 
TF   F  / C  TC  32 F
5 
Conversion Between Degrees Fahrenheit and Degrees Celsius

5 
TC   C  / F  TF  32F 
9 
For example, to convert 10 °C to degrees Fahrenheit, we write:
TF = 9/5 TC +32 = 9/5 (10) + 32 = 50 °F

Conversion Between Degrees Celsius and Degrees kelvin

T  TC  273 .15
Conversion Between Degrees Fahrenheit and Degrees kelvin

TK = 5/9 (TF + 459.67)

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The Absolute Zero: It is defined as the lowest temperature below which it is impossible to cool
an object. This occurs at -273.15 ºC.

Thermal Equilibrium

When the flow of heat stops, they are said to be at the same temperature. They are then said to
be in thermal equilibrium

When the two objects are in thermal equilibrium, their temperatures are equal.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that systems in thermal equilibrium are at the same
temperature.

For example:
Let A, B, and C is three bodies. If A and C are in thermal equilibrium, and A and B are in thermal
equilibrium, then B and C are in thermal equilibrium.

Thermal Expansion

As temperature of the substance increases, its volume increases. This phenomenon, known as
thermal expansion, plays an important role in numerous applications.

Thermal expansion joints, for example, must be included in buildings, concrete highways, and
bridges to compensate for changes in dimensions with variations in temperature.

The overall thermal expansion of an object is a consequence of the change in the average
separation between its constituent atoms or molecules.

As the temperature of the solid increases, the atoms vibrate with greater amplitudes and the
average separation between them increases.
L  L0

L0 (T  T0 )
It has units of (C°)-1.

Note that for these materials α is positive, indicating an increase in length with increasing
temperature.

Examples of the coefficients of linear expansion for various materials are Glass (ordinary) 9×10-6
(C°)-1 and Glass (Pyrex) 3.2×10-6 (C°)-1.

Thermal expansion affects the choice of glassware used in kitchens and laboratories. If hot liquid
is poured into a cold container made of ordinary glass, the container may well break due to
thermal stress.

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Heat and Internal Energy

Internal energy, U is the energy associated with the atoms and molecules of the system.

Heat is the transfer of energy between a system and its environment due to a temperature
difference between them.

The SI unit of heat (energy transferred) is expressed in joule (J)

Before Joule’s work, heat was measured in a unit called the calorie (cal).

one calorie (cal) was defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C.

Note: Calorie, with capital C, used in describing the chemical energy content of foods, is actually
a kilocalorie.

1 cal = 4.186 J

Example
A 74.0 kg person drinks a thick, rich, 305 C milkshake. How many stairs must this person climb to
work off the shake? Let the height of a stair be 20.0 cm.

Solution
1. Convert the energy of the milkshake to joules:
Q = 305,000 cal = 305,000 cal X 4.186 J/cal
Q = 1.28 X 106 J.
2. Equate the energy of the milkshake with the work
done against gravity:
Q = mgH
Q 1.28 10 6 J
H   1760 m
mg (74.0kg)(9.81m / s 2 )
Divide by the height of a stair to get the number of stairs:
1760 m
The number of the stairs   8800
0.2 m
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Another common unit for measuring heat is the;
British thermal unit (Btu). By definition, a Btu is the energy required to heat 1 lb of water from
63 °F to 64 °F.
1 Btu = 0.252 kcal = 1055 J

Heat Capacity

It should be viewed as the amount of heat necessary for a given temperature change.
Q
C
T
The units of heat capacity are (J/K) or (J/C°).

It should be noted that the heat capacity is always positive

• Q is positive if ΔT is positive; that is, if heat is added to a system.

• Q is negative if ΔT is negative; that is, if heat is removed from a system.
•
the heat capacity varies not only with the type of substance, but also with the mass of the
substance.

Specific Heat

the specific heat, c—that depends only on the substance, and not on its mass, as follows:

Q
c
mT
The units of specific heat are J/(kg.K) or J/(kg.Cº)

Water has a large specific heat which means that water can give off or take in large quantities of
heat with little change in temperature.

It is for this reason that if you take a bite of a pie that is just out of the oven, you are much more
likely to burn your tongue on the fruit filling (which has a high water content) than on the much
drier crust.

Latent Heat

The amount of thermal energy (heat) required to change the phase of a given mass, m, of a pure
substance from one phase to another with no change in temperature.
Q
L
m

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 Solid Latent heat of fusion (Lf) Liquid

Liquid Latent heat of vaporization (Lz) Gas

Solid Latent heat of sublimation (Ls) Gas

The units of latent heat is (J/kg).

Heat Transfer

There are 3 different mechanisms of heat transfer which are:

1- Conduction.

2- Convection.

3- Radiation.

Conduction

Experiments show that the amount of heat Q that flows through this rod:

-Increases in proportion to the rod’s cross-sectional area, A;

-Increases steadily with time, t;

-Increases in proportion to the temperature difference, ΔT = T2-T1

-Decreases with the length of the rod, L.

 T 
Q  kA t
 L 
The constant k is referred to as the thermal conductivity of the rod. It varies from material to
material

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An application of thermal conductivity in series can be found in the insulated window. Most
homes today have insulated windows as a means of increasing their energy efficiency.

Convection

Convection occurs when a fluid is unevenly heated. As with the room heater, the warm portions
of the fluid rise because of their lower density and the cool portions sink because of their higher
density.

Application of heat convection:

(a) During the day, the sun warms the land more rapidly than the water. This is because the
land, which is mostly rocks, has a lower specific heat than the water. The warm land heats the
air above it, which becomes less dense and rises. Cooler air from over the water flows in to take
its place, producing a "sea breeze."

b) At night, the land cools off more rapidly than the water- again because of its lower specific
heat. Now it is the air above the relatively warm water that rises and is replaced by cooler air
from over the land, producing a "land breeze."

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Radiation

The energy radiated by an object is in the form of electromagnetic waves. Thus, unlike
convection and conduction, radiation has no need for a physical material to mediate the energy
transfer, since electromagnetic waves can propagate through empty space—that is, through a
vacuum. Therefore, the heat you feel radiated from the Sun reaches the Earth across 150 million
kilometers of vacuum.

Stefan–Boltzmann law:

𝑃 = 𝑒𝜎𝐴𝑇 4

P: the power of radiated body in watts

𝑊
σ: constant, 𝜎 = 5.6696 ∗ 10−8 𝑚2 𝐾4

A: the surface area of the object

e: constant called emissivity, 0 to 1

T: Temperature in Kelvin

The emissivity is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 that indicates how effective the
object is in radiating energy. A value of 1 means that the object is a perfect radiator. In general,
a dark-colored object will have an emissivity near 1, and a light-colored object will have an
emissivity closer to 0.

perfect emitter ( e = 1) is also a perfect absorber

The opposite of a blackbody is an ideal reflector, which absorbs no radiation ( e = 0 ).

the net power radiated by the object is;

𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑒𝜎𝐴(𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠 4 )

T: is the temperature of an object.

Ts: is the surrounding temperature.

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Example:
A student is trying to decide what to wear. The surroundings (his bedroom) are at 20.0°C. If the
skin temperature of the unclothed student is 35°C, what is the net energy loss from his body in
10.0 min by radiation? Assume that the emissivity of skin is 0.900 and that the surface area of
the student is 1.50 m2.

Solution

*Note that the temperatures must be in kelvins.

 𝑇 = 35 + 273 = 308𝑘
 𝑇𝑠 = 20 + 273 = 293𝑘
𝑊
 𝜎 = 5.6696 ∗ 10−8 𝑚2 𝐾4
 𝐴 = 1.5𝑚2 , 𝑒 = 0.9
 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑒𝜎𝐴(𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠 4 ) = (0.9)(5.6696 ∗ 10−8 )(1.5)(3084 − 2934 ) = 125𝑊
𝑄
 𝑃 = 𝑡 → 𝑄 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝑡 = 125 ∗ (10 ∗ 60) = 75000𝐽

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 Chapter 2 : Mechanical Properties of Matter

Stress and strain

The restoring force per unit area is known as stress.

The stress (σ) = F/A

The units of stress are N/m2 or Pascal

Types of Stress:

-Tension stress

-Compression stress

-Shear stress

-Torsion stress

Strain

Strain is the change in length to the original length

Strain (ε) = ∆L/L0

The strain is unitless.

For example: lf a load is applied to a wire with an original length of 2 mm resulting in a new
length of 2.02 mm, it has deformed 0.02 mm and the strain is 0.02/2 = 0.01, or 1%.

Stress-Strain Curve

The stress-strain curve has different regions as follows:

 Proportional limit

 Elastic limit

The stress-strain curve has different points as follows:

 Yield point

 Ultimate stress point

 Fracture or breaking point

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-The value of the stress at A is known as the proportional limit is defined as the highest stress at
which the stress-strain curve is a straight line, that is, the stress is linearly proportional to strain.

-When the force is removed, the object will return to its original dimensions.

-Below the proportional limit, the material is elastic in nature.

-The region of the stress-strain curve before the proportional limit is called the elastic region.

-The region of stress-strain curve beyond the proportional limit is called the plastic region.

-The yield stress is represented by the value B. This yield stress is slightly higher than that for
the proportional limit because it includes a specified amount of permanent deformation.

-The ultimate Strength is represented by the value C. The ultimate tensile strength or stress
(UTS) is defined as the maximum stress that a material can withstand before failure in tension.

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Elastic modulus (E)

Young’s modulus (Y)

F/A Stress
Y 
L / L0 Strain

Most materials can be classified into two categories:

 Ductile materials.

 Brittle materials.

Each of these materials exhibit different behavior when external force applied to them. We can
analyze this behavior by their stress strain curve.

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Ductile materials

-Ductile materials are those which are capable of having large strains before they are fractured.

-Ductile materials can withstand high stress and are also capable of absorbing large amount of
energy before their failure.

-A ductile material has a large percentage of elongation before failure.

-The ultimate stress point and fracture point are not the same in the stress strain curve

Some examples of ductile materials are aluminum, mild steel and some of its alloys i.e. copper,
magnesium, brass, nickel, bronze and many others.

Brittle material

-When an external force applied to brittle materials, it breaks with very small elastic
deformation and without elastic deformation.

-For brittle materials the values of elastic limit, yield point, ultimate stress point and fracture
point are the same.

-Brittle materials absorb relatively small energy prior to fracture.

Viscosity

-A fluid flowing past a stationary surface experiences a force opposing the flow. This tendency to
resist flow is referred to as the viscosity of a fluid.

-If the fluid were ideal, with zero viscosity, it would flow through the tube with a speed that is
the same throughout the fluid.

(a) An ideal fluid flows through a tube with a speed that is the same everywhere in the
fluid.

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 (b) In a real fluid with finite viscosity, the speed of the fluid goes to zero on the walls of the
tube and reaches its maximum value in the center of the tube.

The unit of the coefficient of viscosity is poise , [Link]/cm2 , gm/[Link]

Surface Tension

is the property of the free surface of a liquid at rest to behave like a stretched
membrane in order to acquire minimum surface area

A small insect resting on the surface of a pond or a lake is a common sight in the summertime.

In fact, even a needle or a razor blade can be supported on the surface of water if they are put
into place gently, even though they have densities significantly greater than the density of
water.

The SI unit of surface tension is N/m , J/m2

Intermolecular force
-The force between two molecules of a substance is called intermolecular force. This
intermolecular force is basically electric in nature. The intermolecular forces are of two
[Link] are (i) cohesive force and (ii) adhesive force.

Cohesive force is the force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance.
This cohesive force is very strong in solids, weak in liquids and extremely weak in gases.

Adhesive force is the force of attraction between the molecules of two different
substances.

Mechanical Advantage of Levers

We can classify the mechanical advantage as:

-The mechanical advantage of first class lever either larger or smaller than 1,
-The mechanical advantage of second class lever is always larger than 1.
-The mechanical advantage of third class lever is always less than 1.

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Pressure

the force exerted by a static fluid on an object is always perpendicular to the surfaces of the
object

The units of pressure are newton per square meter (N/m2 ) in the SI system. Another name for
the SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa): 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Motion of Fluids

When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as being one of two main types. The flow
is said to be steady, or laminar, if each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path such that the
paths of different particles never cross each other.

Above a certain critical speed, fluid flow becomes turbulent.

Bernoulli’s Equation

1 2 1
P1  v1  gy1  P2  v22  gy2
2 2
Bernoulli’s equation shows that the pressure of a fluid decreases as the speed of the fluid
increases. In addition, the pressure decreases as the elevation increases.

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 Chapter 3 : Optical Property of a Material
Light, electromagnetic wave that can be detected by the human eye.

Isaac Newton showed that light shining through a prism will be separated into its different
wavelengths and will thus show the various colors

The separation of visible light into its different colors is known as dispersion.

The red wavelengths of light are the longer wavelengths and the violet wavelengths of light are
the shorter wavelengths.

Interaction of Light with Material

Interaction of light with the crystal structure of a material leads to a number of phenomena:

 The absorption.
 The reflection
 The transmissi

Materials are classified on the basis of their interaction with visible light into three
Categories:

-Transparent materials: most of the light incident in these materials will transmit
through it, when the light passing through a transparent materials, the amount of
absorption and reflection is very less i.e. we can see through them, therefore, a clear
image is seen on the other side of the materials.

-Translucent materials: these materials allow partial transmission of light through them,
and a part of the incident light may get reflected or scattered.

-Opaque materials: Most materials are opaque; when light strikes opaque materials none of it
passes through, thus those materials don’t allow the light to transmit. Most of the light gets
reflected, absorbed, or scattered by those materials.

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The Absorption

Light absorption is the process in which light is absorbed by material and converted into
energy.

The absorption of light occurs because the frequencies of the light waves match the
natural frequencies of vibration of the materials.

Reflection of light

When a ray of light approaches a smooth polished surface and the light ray bounces back,
it is called the reflection of light.

Reflection of light occurs because the frequencies of the light waves do not match the
natural frequencies of vibration of the materials.

The reflected rays are parallel to one another Reflection of light from such a smooth surface is
called specular reflection.

If the reflecting surface is rough the surface reflects the rays not as a parallel set but in various
directions. Reflection from any rough surface is known as diffuse reflection.

The Transmission

The light travels through the material and exits the other side. Air, glass and water are common
materials that are very good at transmitting light.

The transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of the light waves do not match
the natural frequencies of vibration of the materials.

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1-How much heat must be absorbed by 375gm of water to raise it’s temperature by 25C.

Solution
𝑄
 𝐶=
𝑀∆𝑇
𝐽
∆𝑇 = 25℃ , 𝑚 = 375 𝑔𝑚𝑠 , 𝐶 = 4.186
𝑔𝑚. ℃
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇 = 375 ∗ 4.186 ∗ 25 = 39243 𝐽

2-What’s the final temperature when 625gm of water at 75C loses 7.96*104J

Solution
*Note that losing heat means that final temperature will be less than 75C.
𝑄 7.96∗104
 ∆𝑇 = 𝐶𝑚 = 4.186∗625 ≅ 30.4℃

 𝑇𝑓 = 75 − 30.4 ≅ 44.6℃

3-A copper cylinder mass = 76.8gm , and it’s specific heat = 0.092cal/gm.C. It’s heated to 86.5C
and then put into 68.7gm of turpentine whose temperature is 19.5C , the final temperature of
the mixture is 31.9C. What’s the specific heat of turpentine?

Solution
*Note that copper lost heat.
𝑄
 ∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 = 𝐶𝑚 = 31.9 − 86.5 = −54.6℃
 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 0.092 ∗ 76.8 ∗ (−54.6) = −385.78𝑐𝑎𝑙

*Note that heat lost by copper = heat gained by turpentine  Qcopper = Qturpentine
 𝑄turpentine = +385.78𝑐𝑎𝑙 , ∆𝑇turpentine = 31.9 − 19.5 = 12.4℃
Qturpentine 385.78 𝑐𝑎𝑙
 𝐶turpentine = 𝑀turpentine∗∆𝑇turpentine = 68.7∗12.4 = 0.452 𝑔𝑚.℃

4-A 65gm of iron at 525C is put into 635gm of water at 15C , what is the final temperature of the
mixture?

Solution

*Note that heat lost by iron = heat gained by water  Qiron = Qwater

 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4.186 ∗ 635 ∗ (𝑇𝑓 − 15) = 2658.1𝑇𝑓 − 39871  (1)

 𝑄𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑀𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛

 𝑄𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑀𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 ∗ (𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 − 𝑇𝑓)
 𝑄𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 0.45 ∗ 65 ∗ (525 − 𝑇𝑓) = 15356.25 − 29.25𝑇𝑓  (2)

Solve (1) and (2)  𝑇𝑓 = 20.55℃

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5-Calculate the amount of heat added to 1gm of gold to change it’s phase from solid to liquid.
The heat of fusion of gold is 64.5*103J/kg

Solution
𝑄 𝑄
 𝐿𝑓 = → 64.5 ∗ 10
𝑚
3
= 1∗103
 𝑄 = 64.5 ∗ 103 ∗ (1 ∗ 10 3)
= 64.5𝐽

5-A student eat 2000 calories, he wishes to do an equivalent amount of work by lifting 50kg
barbell. How many times must he raise the barbell to expend this much of energy? Assume he
raises the barbell 2m each time.

Solution
 3
𝑄 = 2000 ∗ 10 ∗ 4.186 = 8372000𝐽
 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑔𝐻
𝑄 8372000
 𝐻 = 𝑚𝑔 = 50∗9.81 = 17068.3𝑚

*Note that “H” is the total height he needs to raise the barbell.

 𝐻 = 𝑛ℎ
𝐻 17068.3
 𝑛= = = 8534.14 ≅ 8535𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
ℎ 2

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