Space Physics :
Sun & Earth
The Earth is a planet that
o rotates on its axis once every 24 hours
o orbits around the Sun once every 365 days
The Earth's axis is:
o a line that passes through the North and South poles
o tilted at an angle of approximately 23.5° from the
vertical
The daily rotation of the Earth on its axis causes
o the periodic cycle of day and night (rotation about its
axis )
o the apparent daily rising and setting of the Sun
Day and night
Day and night are caused by the Earth's rotation on its axis
One full rotation takes approximately 24 hours, which
means
o the half of the Earth's surface facing the Sun
experiences day
o the other half of the Earth's surface, facing away from
the Sun, experiences night
Day and night on Earth
Day and night are caused by the rotation of the Earth on its axis
once every 24 hours
The rising and setting of the Sun
The apparent daily motion of the Sun is also caused by the
Earth's rotation on its axis
Each day, the Sun appears
o to rise from the east
o to set in the west
o to reach its highest point above the horizon
at noon (12 pm)
The length of a day is
o the number of hours a location receives sunlight, i.e.
from the time the Sun rises to the time it sets
o the same (about 12 hours) in locations near to the
equator
o variable in locations north and south of the equator
Apparent motion of the Sun
The Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Its apparent
motion across the sky changes throughout the year
During equinoxes in both hemispheres:
o day and night are approximately equal in length
o the Sun appears to rise exactly in the east and set
exactly in the west
During the summer, the Sun appears:
o to rise in the northeast and set in the northwest (in
the northern hemisphere)
o to rise in the southeast and set in the southwest (in
the southern hemisphere)
o to move higher above the horizon
o to reach its greatest height above the horizon on
the summer solstice, the day when daylight hours are
the longest
During the winter, the Sun appears:
o to rise in the southeast and set in the southwest (in
the northern hemisphere)
o to rise in the northeast and set in the northwest (in
the southern hemisphere)
o to move closer to the horizon
o to reach its lowest height above the horizon on
the winter solstice, the day when daylight hours are
the shortest
The seasons
Throughout the year, most locations on Earth
experience four seasons; summer, autumn, winter and
spring
These seasons are caused by
o the Earth's orbit around the Sun
o the Earth's tilted axis
The Earth's axis of rotation stays tilted at 23.5° throughout
its orbit around the Sun, which means
o one hemisphere tilts towards the Sun and
receives more solar radiation
o the other hemisphere tilts away from the Sun and
receives less solar radiation
o six months later, the hemispheres tilt in
the opposite direction
Seasons on Earth
Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth and the orbital
motion around the Sun. When it is summer in the northern
hemisphere (NH), it is winter in the southern hemisphere (SH)
When it is summer in the northern hemisphere
o the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun
o the northern hemisphere receives
a greater proportion of solar radiation
o the southern hemisphere experiences winter
When it is winter in the northern hemisphere
o the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun
o the northern hemisphere receives
a smaller proportion of solar radiation
o the southern hemisphere experiences summer
When it is spring or autumn, both hemispheres receive
about the same amount of solar radiation
The effect of the Earth's tilt on solar radiation
The amount of solar radiation received by the northern
hemisphere in winter is less than the amount of solar radiation
received by the southern hemisphere in summer
The variation in daylight hours throughout the year in the
northern and southern hemispheres is shown below:
Seasons, equinoxes and solstices
Northern Southern
When Daylight hours Daylight hours
Hemisphere Hemisphere
(spring) equal hours of day (autumn) equal hours of day
20 Mar
equinox and night equinox and night
days
days are longer than
Mar, are shorter than
nights
Apr, spring autumn nights
hours of
May hours of
daylight increase
daylight decrease
(summer) longest hours of (winter) shortest hours of
21 Jun
solstice daylight solstice daylight
days
days are longer than
are shorter than
Jun, Jul, nights
summer winter nights
Aug hours of
hours of
daylight decrease
daylight increase
(autumn) equal hours of day (spring) equal hours of day
23 Sept
equinox and night equinox and night
days
days are longer than
Sept, are shorter than
nights
Oct, autumn nights spring
hours of
Nov hours of
daylight increase
daylight decrease
(winter) shortest hours of (summer) longest hours of
21 Dec
solstice daylight solstice daylight
days
days are longer than
are shorter than
Dec, nights
winter nights summer
Jan, Feb hours of
hours of
daylight decrease
daylight increase
Moon & Earth
The Moon is a natural satellite that
o orbits around the Earth in a roughly circular orbit
o takes about one month (28 days) to complete one orbit(months )
o rotates on its axis once every 28 days so the same side always faces the Earth
Phases of the Moon
The Moon does not produce its own light(reflects off the light from the sun )
It is visible in the night sky because it reflects the light from the Sun
As it orbits around the Earth, it can be seen to undergo different phases
Motion of the Moon
Exactly half of the Moon is always illuminated by the Sun, but its appearance varies when
viewed from Earth as it completes its monthly orbit
On day 0, a new moon is observed, where:
o the Moon is positioned between the Earth and the Sun
o the side of the Moon facing away from Earth is fully illuminated
o none of the Moon's surface is visible from Earth
On day 7, the first quarter phase is observed
o After the new moon, a thin crescent appears and becomes brighter (waxes)
o After the first quarter moon, it continues to brighten (wax) into a gibbous shape
On day 14, a full moon is observed, where:
o the Earth is positioned between the Moon and the Sun
o the side of the Moon facing towards the Earth is fully illuminated
o all of the Moon's surface is visible from Earth
On day 21, the last quarter phase is observed
o After the full moon, it becomes dimmer (wanes) back into a gibbous shape
o After the last quarter moon, it continues to dim (wane) into a crescent
On day 29, a new moon is observed and the cycle starts again
The Solar System
The Solar System consists of:
o the Sun
o eight planets
o natural and artificial satellites
o dwarf planets(pluto )
o asteroids and comets
The Solar System
The Solar System consists of one star (the Sun) and the objects that orbit it, including the
planets, moons, dwarf planets, asteroids and comets
The Planets
There are eight planets which orbit the Sun
In ascending order of the distance from the Sun, these are:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
The planets can be divided into two groups
o the inner rocky planets
o the outer gas giants
Dwarf Planets
A dwarf planet is an object similar to a planet, but much smaller
The gravitational field around a planet is strong enough to pull in nearby objects (with
the exception of natural satellites)
Whereas, the gravitational field around a dwarf planet is not strong enough to pull in
nearby objects
Satellites
There are two types of satellites: natural and artificial
Natural and artificial satellites of Earth
The Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth. Many artificial satellites orbit around the Earth.
Natural satellites are objects that orbit planets
A moon is a type of natural satellite
Artificial satellites are manmade objects that orbit another object in space
The International Space Station (ISS) is an example of an artificial satellite that orbits the
Earth
Asteroids and comets
Asteroids and comets also orbit the Sun
Locations of asteroids and comets
Asteroids are found in the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter, whereas comets are
usually found in the outer reaches of the Solar System due to their highly elliptical orbits
An asteroid is a small rocky object which orbits the Sun
The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter
An asteroid
Asteroids are small, rocky objects which occupy the inner Solar System
A comet is an object made of dust and ice which goes around the Sun in a highly
elliptical(oval shaped ) (not a circular path with the Sun at the centre) path
The ice melts when the comet approaches the Sun and forms the comet’s tail
A comet
Comets are small, icy objects which occupy the outer Solar System
Orbiting bodies
The Solar System is made up of many bodies which orbit around other bodies
Smaller bodies orbit around larger bodies
o For example, planets orbit the Sun and moons orbit planets
The orbiting bodies in the Solar System are shown in the table below:
Table of orbiting bodies in the Solar System
orbiting body body it orbits
planet the Sun
moon planet
comet can pass around the Sun
asteroid the Sun
artificial satellites the Earth
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Analysing orbit
Mean distance
from Sun Orbital Mass Surface
Mean surface Density Diameter Number
Planet (relative to period (relative to gravity
temperature(decreases) (kg/m3) (103 km) of moons
Earth) ( increases (increases ) Earth) (N/kg)
)
Mercury 0.39 0.24 350 5429 4.9 0.06 3.7 0
Venus 0.72 0.60 460 5243 12.1 0.82 8.9 0
Earth 1 1 20 5514 12.8 1 9.8 1
Mars 1.5 2 −23 3934 6.8 0.11 3.7 2
Jupiter 5.2 12 −120 1326 143 320 23.1 63
Saturn 9.6 30 −180 687 121 95 9.0 61
Uranus 19 84 −210 1270 51 15 8.7 27
Neptune 30 160 −220 1638 50 17 11.0 13
Data for the planets in the Solar System
The data allows us to Density ( decreasing from mercury to Saturn ,then increasing
from Uranus to Neptune )
Diameter ( increasing from mercury to earth ,(earth to mars decrease ) ,Jupiter to
Neptune (decreasing )
Mass ( Mercury to earth increasing ) , (earth to mars decrease ),(jupiter to Uranus
decreasing ) ,(uranus to neptune increasing )
Surface gravity ( mercury to eart increasing ) ,( earth to mars decreasing ) ,(Jupiter to
Uranus its decreasing ),(uranus to neptune its increasing )
No of moons : (increasing from mercury to Jupiter ),(decrease from Jupiter to neptune)
o make comparisons
o identify trends and anomalies
o make predictions
Some examples of comparisons are:
o Neptune is 30 times further away from the Sun than the Earth
o Jupiter contains the same mass as 320 Earths
An example of a trend is:
o As the distance from the Sun increases, the time it takes to complete one orbit
(orbital period) also increases
An example of an anomaly (trend being followed except for one of two planets ) is:
o As the distance from the Sun increases, the temperature decreases, except for
Venus which has a higher temperature than Mercury
An example of a prediction is:
o The temperature of a dwarf planet in the asteroid belt is likely to be around
−100°C, but it could be anywhere between −63°C and −130°C as these are the
temperatures of Mars and Jupiter
Formation of the Solar System
The 4 inner planets (nearest to the Sun):
o are rocky and small
o have atmospheres (except for Mercury)
The 4 outer planets (furthest from the Sun):
o are gaseous and large
o are mostly composed of hydrogen and helium gas(nuclear physics equation )
The planets in the Solar System
The eight planets can be split into the four inner rocky planets and the four outer gas giants
The differences between the inner and outer planets can be explained using
the accretion model for the formation of the Solar System
Distribution of elements in the Solar System
The Sun and the planets in the Solar System are formed from a cloud of dust and
gas (nebula)(formation of a star)
o Gravity pulled this cloud together into a giant ball, which would eventually
become the Sun
o As the nebula collapsed, the Sun became denser and hotter
The Solar System then formed around 4.5 billion years ago
o The planets are formed from the remnants of the matter left over from the
nebula that formed the Sun
o The nebula contained many elements that were created during a supernova
explosion in the distant past
As the early Sun became hotter, gaseous matter was pushed further out into the Solar
System than solid matter
A nebula
A nebula is an interstellar cloud of gas and dust
Formation of the inner planets(rocky planets )
In the hotter regions, closer to the Sun, the temperature was too high for lighter
elements to exist in a solid state
o Therefore, the inner planets were formed from materials with high melting
temperatures such as metals (e.g. iron)(it could not have withstand the suns
radiation )
o The original nebula contained only a small proportion of heavy elements, so the
inner planets could not grow as significantly as the outer planets
As a result, solids in the inner disc were pulled together by gravity to form 4 solid
planets
o This is why the 4 planets nearest to the Sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars)
are rocky and small
Formation of the outer planets(gaseous giants )
In the cooler regions, further from the Sun, the temperature was low enough for the
light molecules to exist in a solid state
o Therefore, the outer planets formed from materials with low melting
temperatures (e.g. hydrogen, helium, water and methane)
o The original nebula contained a large proportion of light elements, so the outer
planets were able to become exceptionally large
As a result, gases in the outer disc were pulled together by gravity to form gaseous
planets
o This is why the 4 planets furthest from the Sun (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune) are gaseous and large
Formation of the accretion disc
In the nebula, matter accreted
o This means attractive gravitational forces between particles caused them to join
together and grow into larger objects
As the cloud collapsed under gravitational forces
o it began to spin faster
o it became hotter
o it formed an accretion disc
From the rotating accretion disc, the Sun and the planets emerged
o The Sun formed at the centre
o The planets formed in the accretion disc
Formation of the Solar System
The Solar System formed from a nebula with the Sun in the centre, then solid planets closer to
the Sun and gaseous planets further away
Light speed calculations
Light is a type of electromagnetic wave which travels at a constant speed of 3 × 108 m/s
Objects in the Solar System are visible from Earth as they reflect light from the Sun
It takes time for light to travel such large distances, for example:
o it takes 8 minutes for light from the Sun to reach Earth
o it takes around 5 hours for light from the Sun to reach the outer regions of the
Solar System
o it takes 4 years for light from our nearest star (after the Sun) to reach Earth
The Milky Way galaxy contains billions of stars, huge distances away, with the light taking
even longer to be seen from Earth
To carry out light speed calculations, we can rearrange the equation:
Time = distance travelled /speed of light
So, the time taken for light to travel a distance can be calculated using:
Question :
The radius of Mercury's orbit around the Sun is 5.8 × 1010 m.
The speed of light is 3.0 × 108 m/s.
Calculate the time taken for light from the Sun to reach Mercury.
Gravitational field strength of a planet
The strength of a gravitational field around a planet depends on
o the mass of the planet
o the distance from the planet
Gravitational field strength and mass
The relationship between gravitational field strength and mass is:
The greater the mass of a planet, the greater the strength of the gravitational field at
its surface
The value of (gravitational field strength) varies from planet to planet depending on
their mass and radius
Gravitational field strength of bodies in the Solar System
The strength of the gravitational field at the surface of a planet depends on its mass
and radius
Gravitational field strength and distance
The relationship between gravitational field strength and distance is:
As the distance from a planet increases, the strength of the gravitational field
decreases
At the surface of a planet, the value of (gravitational field strength) is constant, but it
decreases with distance from the planet
Gravitational attraction of the Sun
Orbital motion is a result of the gravitational force of attraction acting between two
bodies
This gravitational force
o always acts towards the centre of the larger body
o causes the orbiting body to move in a circular path
The Sun contains most of the mass (>99%) of the Solar System
Therefore, for objects orbiting around the Sun
o the Sun's gravitational attraction keeps them in orbit
o the force is directed from the orbiting object to the centre of the Sun
Orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun
The Sun's gravitational force of attraction keeps the Earth in orbit around the Sun
Orbital motion of planets
As the distance from the Sun increases:
o the Sun's gravitational field strength decreases
o the orbital speed of a planet decreases
For an object to maintain a circular orbit, it must have a centripetal force
o For planets orbiting the Sun, this force is the Sun's gravitational attraction
Therefore, the centripetal force on a planet depends on
o the strength of the Sun's gravitational field
o the distance of the planet from the Sun
The further away a planet is from the Sun, the weaker the strength of the Sun's
gravitational attraction and the weaker the centripetal force
The centripetal force on a planet is proportional to its orbital speed
Therefore, the further a planet is from the Sun:
o the smaller its orbital speed
o the longer its orbital period
Orbital speed and distance
The closest planets to the Sun have the fastest orbital speeds, and the furthest have
the slowest
This trend in orbital speed and distance can be seen in the data of the planets in the
Solar System:
Orbital radius, speed and period data
Planet Orbital radius (million km) Orbital speed (km/s) Orbital period (days
Mercury 57.9 47.9 88 days
Venus 108.2 35.0 225 days
Earth 149.6 29.8 365 days
Mars 227.9 24.1 687 days
Jupiter 778.6 13.1 11.9 years
Saturn 1433.5 9.7 29.5 years
Uranus 2872.5 6.8 75 years
Neptune 4495.1 5.4 165 years
Orbital speed equation
When planets orbit around the Sun, or a moon moves around a planet, they move
in circular orbits
In one complete orbit, a planet travels a distance equal to the circumference of a circle
o This is equal to 2 (pi) r , where r is the radius of the circular path
The relationship between speed, distance and time is:
Speed =distance /time = circumference of orbit /orbital period =
The average orbital speed of an object can be defined by the equation:
V= 2(pi)r /T
Where:
o v = orbital speed in metres per second (m/s)
o r = average radius of the orbit in metres (m)
o T = orbital period in seconds (s)
This orbital period (or time period) is defined as:
The time taken for an object to complete one orbit
The orbital radius r is always taken from the centre of the object being orbited to the
object orbiting
Orbital speed of a planet
Orbital radius and orbital speed of a planet moving around a Sun
Question :
The Hubble Space Telescope moves in a circular orbit. Its height above the Earth’s surface is 560
km and the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. It completes one orbit in 96 minutes.
Calculate its orbital speed in m/s.
Step 3: Calculate the orbital radius, r
The orbital radius is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the telescope