INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

FLUID MECHANICS

LECTURE 01
ENGR. JAY MARK P. DELOS REYES

MECHANICS-the science which describes and GAS DYNAMICS

predicts the conditions of rest or motion of deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant
solid bodies or fluids under the action of density changes, such as the flow of gases
forces. through nozzles at high speeds.
AERODYNAMICS
MAJOR BRANCHES deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over
FLUID STATICS bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at
study of fluids at rest.
high or low speeds.
FLUID DYNAMICS Some other specialized categories such as
study of fluids in motion.
METEOROLOGY, OCEANOGRAPHY, and
----OTHER CATEGORIES---- HYDROLOGY deal with naturally occurring flows.
HYDRODYNAMICS FLUIDS
the study of the motion of fluids that are practically Substances which are capable of flowing and have
incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, particles that easily mover or change their relative
and gases at low speeds) position without separation of mass.
HYDRAULICS e.g are liquid and gas.
A subcategory of hydrodynamics is which deals
with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN A SOLID AND A FLUID
1. IDEAL FLUIDS
assumed to have no viscosity (nonviscous, no
shear resistance) incompressible
• have uniform velocity when flowing
• no friction between moving layers of fluid
• no eddy currents or turbulence TYPES OF
FLUIDS
2. REAL FLUIDS
● exhibit infinite viscosities
● non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing
● compressible
● experience friction and turbulence in flow

TYPES OF REAL FLUIDS

2.1 NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
● The viscosity coefficient is independent of the
rate of shear
● Fluid's viscosity remains constant, no matter
the amount of shear applied for a constant 2.2.2 According to how viscosity changes in respect to
temperature. shear applied over time to the fluid.
● These fluids have a linear relationship between [Link] Rheopectic Fluids
viscosity and shear stress. very similar to dilatant in that when shear is
● Examples: Water, Mineral oil, Gasoline, Alcohol applied, viscosity increases. The difference here, is that
2.2 NON- NEWTONIAN FLUIDS Viscosity increases with time.
● The viscosity at a given pressure and e.g. gypsum paste, cream
temperatures is a function of the velocity
gradient. 2.2.2 According to how viscosity changes in respect to
● When shear is applied to non-Newtonian fluids, shear applied over time to the fluid.
the viscosity of the fluid changes. [Link] Thixotropic Fluids
CATEGORIES OF NON- NEWTONIAN FLUIDS Fluids with thixotropic properties decrease in
2.2.1 According to viscosity changes in respect to the viscosity when shear is applied. The viscosity decreases
amount of shear or stress applied to the fluid. with time
[Link] Bingham Plastics ( ideal plastics) e.g. paint, cosmetics, asphalt, and glue
Can withstand a certain amount of shearing
stress. When the shear stress has reached a certain
yield value, the material deforms.
e.g sewage sludge
2.2.1 According to viscosity changes in respect to the
amount of shear or stress applied to the fluid.
[Link] Pseudoplastic Fluids
Viscosity decreases with rate of shear but the
material deforms as soon as the shearing stress is
applied.
e.g ketchup, gels, polytyrene in organic
solvents, and metallic scraps in gasoline.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Intensive properties are those that are independent of the
mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density. Extensive properties are those whose values
depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume V, and total momentum are some
examples of extensive properties.

1. WEIGHT (𝑾)
Earth’s gravitational pull upon a body.
A.k.a gravity force
𝑚𝑔
𝑊=
𝑘
Where: 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 9.8066 𝑠2
𝑜𝑟 32.174 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑘𝑔𝑚 ∙𝑚 𝑘𝑔𝑚 ∙𝑚
𝑘 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 1.0 𝑜𝑟 9.8066 (𝑆𝐼)
𝑁∙𝑠2 𝑘𝑔𝑓 ∙𝑠2
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ∙ 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙ 𝑓𝑡
𝑘 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 1.0 2
𝑜𝑟 32.174 (𝐸𝑁𝐺)
𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
2. MASS (𝒎)
Quantitive measure of the amount of matter in a given body.
Relation between mass of weight:
𝑊𝑘
𝑚=
𝑔
3. MASS DENSITY OR DENSITY (𝝆)
Mass contained in a unit volume. Typical units:
𝑚 English - slugs/ ft3 , lbm/ft3
𝜌 =
𝑉 Metric - gm / cm3
Where: 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 SI - kgm / m3
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

In terms of flow rates,

𝑚̇
𝜌 =
𝑉̇
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
where : 𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑉̇ = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
Density varies with temperature. Some equations for the approximate value for density of water that can be
used:
A.) For water at range 0℃ ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 100℃
𝜌 = 1000 – 0.0178 | 𝑡 – 4℃ |1.7 ± 0.2%, 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
B) For all values of 𝑡
(𝑡 − 4)2
𝜌 = 1000 − , 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
180
Where 𝑡 is in ℃

For ideal gas,

1 Where: 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
[ 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇]
𝑉𝑅𝑇 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑃 𝑚 𝑚
= ; 𝜌 =𝑉 𝑅 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑇 𝑉
𝑘𝐽 𝑓𝑡∙𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑃 Note for air: 𝑅 = 0.28708 = 53.342
𝜌 = 𝑘𝑔∙𝐾 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙°𝑅
𝑅𝑇
4. SPECIFIC VOLUME (𝒗)
Volume of a unit mass of a substance.
𝑉
𝑣 =
𝑚
But
𝑚 1 𝑉
ρ= 𝑉
𝑜𝑟 𝜌 = 𝑚
𝟏
Hence, 𝒗 = 𝝆

5. SPECIFIC WEIGHT, WEIGHT DENSITY or UNIT WEIGHT (𝜸)

Weight of a unit volume of a fluid.
𝑊
𝛾 =
𝑉
𝑚𝑔
But 𝑊 = 𝑘
,
𝑚𝑔
𝑘 𝑚𝑔
𝛾 = 𝑉
= 𝑉𝑘
𝑚
Also, 𝜌 =
𝑉
𝜌𝑔
𝛾 = 𝑘

Specific weight varies with temperature. Some equations for the approximate value for density of water that
can be used:
(𝑡−4)2
𝛾 = 9810 − , N/𝑚3
18
Where 𝑡 is in ℃

6. SPECIFIC GRAVITY or RELATIVE DENSITY (𝑺𝑮)

Ratio of the specific weight of any substance to that of water or reference substance.
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝐺 = 𝛾𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜌𝑔
But 𝛾 = 𝑘
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔
𝑘
𝑆𝐺 = 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔
𝑘
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝐺 = 𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

For liquids, typical reference is water. For water (at 4°C):

𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑘𝑁
𝛾 = 62.4 3 = 9.8066 3
𝑓𝑡 𝑚
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 1.94 3
= 62.4 3 = 1000 3
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑚
𝑆𝐺 = 1.0
For gases, typical reference is air. For air (1 atm, 20℃):
𝑁
𝛾 = 11.77 3
𝑚
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 1.20 3
𝑚
 141.5
𝑆𝐺@ 15.6℃ =
°𝐴𝑃𝐼 + 131.5
141.5
𝑆𝐺@ 60℉ =
°𝐴𝑃𝐼 + 131.5
Note:
API gravity express the gravity or density of crude oil and liquid petroleum products.
API is devised jointly by the American Petroleum Institute and the NIST - National Institute of Standards and
Technology. The measuring scale is calibrated in terms of degrees API.
140
𝑆𝐺@ 15.6℃ =
°𝐵𝑒 + 130
140
𝑆𝐺@ 60℉ =
°𝐵𝑒 + 130
Note:
Baume scale a scale for calibrating hydrometers used for measuring the specific gravity of liquids.

Specific gravity at temperature 𝑡 (other than 15.6℃ or 60℉) is

𝑆𝐺𝑡 = (𝑆𝐺@ 15.6℃ )(𝐶𝐹)
𝑆𝐺𝑡 = (𝑆𝐺@ 60℉ )(𝐶𝐹)

Where: 𝐶𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

For 𝑡 in ℃: 𝐶𝐹 = 1 − 0.00072(𝑡 − 15.6)
For 𝑡 in ℉: 𝐶𝐹 = 1 − 0.0004(𝑡 − 60)

Specific gravity at temperature 𝑡 (other than 15.6℃ or 60℉) is

𝑆𝐺𝑡 = (𝑆𝐺@ 15.6℃ )(𝐶𝐹)
𝑆𝐺𝑡 = (𝑆𝐺@ 60℉ )(𝐶𝐹)

Where: 𝐶𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

For 𝑡 in ℃: 𝐶𝐹 = 1 − 0.00072(𝑡 − 15.6)
For 𝑡 in ℉: 𝐶𝐹 = 1 − 0.0004(𝑡 − 60)

For mercury, typical specific gravity is 13.6. On the other hand, SG of mercury relates to temperature 𝑡 by
𝑆𝐺 = 13.6 − 0.0024𝑡
Where 𝑡 is in ℃

7. TEMPERATURE (𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝑻)
Measure of hotness or coldness of a fluid.
1) Common Temperature Scales (𝒕)
SI: Celsius Scale
Eng: Fahrenheit Scale
Equations:
5
𝑡℃ = (𝑡 − 32)
9 ℉
9
𝑡℉ = 𝑡℃ + 32
5
2) Absolute Temperature Scales (𝑻)
SI: Kelvin (𝐾)
Eng: Rankine (°𝑅)
Equations:
𝑇𝐾 = 𝑡℃ + 273
 𝑇°𝑅 = 𝑡℉ + 460
3) Other Temperature Scales
3.1 Reaumur scale (°𝑹𝒆)
Boiling point of water (1 atm): 80°𝑅𝑒
Freezing point of water (1 atm): 0°𝑅𝑒
3.2 Rømer scale (°Rø)
Boiling point of water (1 atm):60°Rø
Freezing point of water (1 atm): 7.5°Rø
3) Other Temperature Scales
3.1 Reaumur scale (°𝑹𝒆)
Boiling point of water (1 atm): 80°𝑅𝑒
Freezing point of water (1 atm): 0°𝑅𝑒
3.2 Rømer scale (°Rø)
Boiling point of water (1 atm):60°Rø
Freezing point of water (1 atm): 7.5°Rø
3.3 Newton scale (°𝑵)
Boiling point of water: 33°𝑁 𝑜𝑟 33 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
Freezing point of water: 0°𝑁 𝑜𝑟 0 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
3.4 Delisle scale (°D)
Boiling point of water: 150°D
Freezing point of water: 0°D
Temperature Interval
Difference between two temperature readings from the same scale.
Conversions:
∆𝑡℃ = ∆𝑇𝐾
∆𝑡℉ = ∆𝑇°𝑅
∆𝑡℃ = 1.8 ∆𝑡℉
∆𝑇𝐾 = 1.8∆𝑇°𝑅
EXAMPLE
A reservoir of glycerine has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952 m3. Determine:
a) Weight in N
b) Mass density in kg/m3
c) Weight density in lbf/ft3
d) Specific gravity
e) Specific volume in ft3/slug

A reservoir of glycerine has a mass of 1200 kg and

a volume of 0.952 m3.
Determine:
A) W =?
𝑚
𝑚𝑔 (1200𝑘𝑔𝑚) (9.8066 2 )
𝑠
W= = 𝑘𝑔𝑚 ·𝑚 D) SG =?
𝑘 1.0
𝑁·𝑠2 𝑙𝑏𝑓
Ɣ𝐺𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 78.68
W = 11767.92 N SG =
Ɣ𝑆𝐺
= =
𝑓𝑡3
𝑙𝑏𝑓
B) ρ =? Ɣ𝑅𝐸𝐹 Ɣ 𝐻2 𝑜 62.4
𝑓𝑡3
𝑚 1200 𝑘𝑔
ρ= = SG = 1.26
𝑉 0.952 𝑚3
𝑘𝑔 E) ʋ =?
ρ = 1260.50 𝑉
𝑚3
C) Ɣ =?
ʋ= =
𝑚
𝑊 11767.92 𝑁 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 13 𝑚3 0.952 𝑚3 3.2813 𝑓𝑡 3 1𝑘𝑔𝑚 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚
Ɣ= = [ ][ ] [
13 𝑚3
][ ][ ]
𝑉 0.952 𝑚3 4.4482𝑁 3.2813 𝑓𝑡 3 1200 𝑘𝑔 2.205𝑙𝑏𝑚 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
3
Ɣ = 78.68
𝑙𝑏𝑓 ʋ = 0. 409 𝑓𝑡 /slug
𝑓𝑡 3

EXAMPLE
Determine the density, specific gravity, and mass of the air in a room whose dimensions are 4
m x 5 m x 6 m at 100 kPa and 25°C.
Given: P = 100 KPA 𝑃 100 𝐾𝑃𝐴
ρ = 𝑅𝑇 = 0.287 𝐾𝑃𝐴·𝑚3
T = 25℃ ( )(25+273𝐾)
𝐾𝐺·𝐾
3 𝑘𝑔𝑚
V= 4 X 5 X 6 = 120𝑚 ρ = 1.17 𝑚3
Required: A) ρ B) SG =?
B) SG 𝑘𝑔
1.17 𝑚
𝜌 𝑚3
C) M SG = 𝜌 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚
𝐻2 𝑜 1000
𝑚3

A) ρ =? SG = 0.00117
C) M =?
𝑘𝑔𝑚
M = ρV = (1.17 𝑚3
)(120𝑚3 )
M = 140 KG
EXAMPLE
A cylindrical tank 80 cm in diameter and 90 cm high is filled with a liquid. The tank and the liquid weighed 420
kg. The weight of the empty tank is 50 kg. What is the unit weight of the liquid in 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 .

Given: D = 80 cm
H = 90 cm
𝑊𝑇 = 420 𝑘𝑔𝑓
𝑊𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐾 = 50 𝑘𝑔𝑓
Required: Ɣ =? in KN/𝑚3
Solution: 𝑊𝑇 = 𝑊𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐾 + 𝑊𝐿𝐼𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷
420 𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 50 𝑘𝑔𝑓 + 𝑊𝐿𝐼𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷
𝑊𝐿𝐼𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷 = 370 𝑘𝑔𝑓
𝑊 𝑊
Ɣ= = 𝐿𝐼𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷 ; 𝑉𝐿𝐼𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷 = 𝑉𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐾 = 𝑉𝐶𝑌𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐷𝐸𝑅
𝑉 𝑉𝐿𝐼𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷
𝑊𝐿𝐼𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷 𝜋
Ɣ= 𝑉
; 𝑉𝐶𝑌𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐷𝐸𝑅 = 4 𝐷2𝐻
𝐶𝑌𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐷𝐸𝑅
𝑊𝐿𝐼𝑄𝑈𝐼𝐷
Ɣ= 𝜋 2
𝐷 𝐻
4
370 𝑘𝑔𝑓 9.8066 𝑁 1 𝐾𝑁 𝑲𝑵
Ɣ= 𝜋 80 2 90
( )( ) Ɣ = 8.021
[ ] [ ] 1𝑘𝑔𝑓 1000 𝑁 𝒎𝟑
4 100 100

EXAMPLE
Calculate the minimum volume of day tank of 28oAPI fuel having a fuel consumption of 1 kg/s.
Ambient temperature = 20oC.
Given: API = 28 ℃
𝑘𝑔
ṁf = 1
𝑠
T = 20
Required: Minimum volume of day tank; t = 1 day, 24 hrs

Solution:
𝑀𝑓
For 𝑆𝐺𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 =? For 𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 ; 𝜌𝑓 = ; 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝑉𝑓
141.5 141.5
𝑆𝐺𝑓@15.6℃ = = 𝑀𝑓
̊𝐴𝑃𝐼+151.5 28℃ +151.5 𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = ; 𝜌𝑓 =?
𝜌𝑓
𝑆𝐺𝑓@15.6℃ = 0.8871
𝜌𝑓
𝑆𝐺𝑓 = ; 𝜌𝑓 = 𝑆𝐺𝑓 𝜌𝐻2𝑂
But T = 20℃ 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂

𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑀𝑓
𝑆𝐺𝑓 = (𝑆𝐺𝑓@15.6℃ )(CF) Ṿ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = =
𝑉𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝐺𝑓 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂
𝑆𝐺𝑓 = [𝑆𝐺𝑓@15.6℃ ][1-0.00072(t-15.6)] 𝑀𝑓 ( 𝑉𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 )
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 =
𝑆𝐺𝑓 𝜌𝐻2𝑂
𝑆𝐺𝑓 = [0.8871][1-0.00072(20-15.6)]
𝑘𝑔 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 3600 𝑠
1 [1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑥 ][ ]
𝑆𝐺𝑓 = 0.8843 𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 =
𝑠 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
0.8843(1000 3 )
𝑚

𝑽𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌 = 97.70 𝒎𝟑
EXAMPLE
Initially, a 1- liter cylindrical container is filled with water at 10oC. The water and its container are heated
to 70 C. Assuming no evaporation and the coefficient of thermal expansion of glass container is 3.6x10-6 per
o
o
C, determine
a) mass of water if 𝑣 at 10oC is 0.0010004 m3/kg;
b) spillage in m3 upon heating the fluid and container; and
c) dimension of the container if the diameter is half of the height. Take 𝛽𝐻2 𝑂 = 207 x 10-6 per ℃.

8. PRESSURE (𝑷)
Force acting on a unit area.
𝐹
𝑃 =
𝐴
a) Gage Pressure (Pg)
Pressure of a fluid or system measured by pressure measuring instrument.
Note:
+ Pg = Pg
- Pg = Pvac

b) Atmospheric Pressure (Patm)

Force exerted by the column of atmosphere per unit area at the surface of the earth.
c) Hydrostatic Pressure (Phyd)
Force exerted by the column of fluid
𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑑 = 𝛾ℎ
𝑝𝑔ℎ
𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑑 =
𝑘
d) Absolute Pressure (Pabs)
Pressure of a fluid of system with reference to an absolute zero pressure.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔
Note: Standard atmospheric pressure
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 1.013bar = 1.013 x 106dyne/cm2 = 29.92 inHg = 1.34 mH20 = 760 torr = 14.7 psi = 1.032
𝑘𝑔𝑓 /𝑐𝑚2 = 101.325 kPa = 34 ft/H20
EXAMPLE
Convert 230 kPa to millimeters of mercury, inches of mercury, and feet of water.
Solution:
760 𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝑔
A) 230 KPA (101.325 𝐾𝑃𝐴) = 1725.14 mm Hg
29.92 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑔
B) 230 KPA ( ) = 67.92 in Hg
101.325 𝐾𝑃𝐴
77.18 FT 𝐻2 𝑂
C) 230 KPA ( 101.325 𝐾𝑃𝐴 ) = 77.18 ft 𝑯𝟐 𝑶

9. VAPOR PRESSURE (𝑷𝒗 )

The reason for our interest in vapor pressure is the possibility of the liquid pressure in liquid-flow
systems dropping below the vapor pressure at some locations, and the resulting unplanned vaporization. For
example, water at 10°C will flash into vapor and form bubbles at locations (such as the tip regions of impellers
or suction sides of pumps) where the pressure drops below 1.23 kPa.
The vapor bubbles (called cavitation bubbles since they form “cavities” in the liquid) collapse as they
are swept away from the low pressure regions, generating highly destructive, extremely high-pressure waves.
This phenomenon, which is a common cause for drop in performance and even the erosion of impeller blades,
is called cavitation, and it is an important consideration in the design of hydraulic turbines and pumps

the pressure exerted by vapor of a pure substance in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature.
It is a property of the pure substance, and turns out to be identical to the saturation pressure of the liquid.
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡
10. SURFACE TENSION (𝝈𝒔 )
Material property whereby a liquid at a material interface, usually liquid-gas, exerts a force per unit length
along the surface.
Membrane of skin that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid due to the intermolecular cohesive
forces.
Effect of cohesion between particles of the liquid at its free surface.

𝑑𝐹
𝑑𝜎𝑠 = (definition of surface tension)
𝑑𝐿
𝐹
𝜎𝑠 = 𝐿
● Case (a) is a spherical droplet of radius R. The surface tension force is balanced by the internal
pressure.
𝐹 = 𝜎𝑠 𝐿 = 𝑃𝐴
𝜎𝑠 𝐿 = 𝑃𝐴
𝜎𝑠 (2𝜋𝑅) = 𝑃(𝜋𝑅 2 )
𝑃𝑅
𝜎𝑠 =
2
● Case (b) is a bubble of radius R that has internal and external surfaces and the surface tension force
acts on both surfaces.
2𝜎𝑠 𝐿 = 𝑃𝐴
2𝜎𝑠 (2𝜋𝑅) = 𝑃(𝜋𝑅2 )
𝑃𝑅
𝜎𝑠 =
4
● Case (c) is a cylinder with length L supported by surface-tension forces. The liquid does not wet the
cylinder surface. The maximum weight the surface tension can support is

𝑊 = 2𝐹
𝑊 = 2(𝜎𝑠 𝐿)
𝑊 = 2𝜎𝑠 𝐿
● Case (d) is a ring being pulled out of a liquid. This is a technique to measure surface tension. The force
due to surface tension on the ring is
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜 + 𝐹𝑖
𝐹 = 𝜎𝑠 𝐿𝑜 + 𝜎𝑠 𝐿𝑖
𝐹 = 𝜎𝑠 (𝜋𝐷𝑜 ) + 𝜎𝑠 (𝜋𝐷𝑖 )
 𝐹 = 𝜋𝜎𝑠 (𝐷𝑜 + 𝐷𝑖 )
EXAMPLE
A machine creates small 0.5-mm-diameter bubbles of 20℃ water. Estimate the pressure that exists inside the
bubbles.
Given: D = 0.5 mm 𝑃𝑅 𝐷
Solution: ѳ𝑠 = 4 ; R = 2
𝑡 = 20 ℃
PRѳ𝑠
Required: P =? 4ѳ 4ѳ
P = 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠 ; ѳ𝑠 = ѳ𝑠 of 𝐻2 𝑂@ 20℃ =
2
𝑁
0.873 𝑚
𝑁
4(0.873 ) 𝑁
𝑚
P= 0.5 1𝑚 = 1168 𝑚2 or 1168 KPA
( )
2 1000𝑚𝑚

P = 1168 kPa
11. CAPILLARITY (ℏ)
the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid. Such narrow tubes or confined
flow channels are called capillaries.
3
Important when using tubes smaller than about 8 in (9.5mm) in diameter.
The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube is called the meniscus
● Cohesion
refers to the attraction of molecules for
other molecules of the same kind.
● Adhesion
Is the attraction of molecules of
one kind for molecules of a different kind.
The upward motion against gravity, known as
capillary action, depends on the attraction
between water molecules and the glass walls
of the tube (adhesion), as well as on interactions
between water molecules (cohesion).
Wetting Liquid
Adhesion is greater than cohesion.
Non –Wetting Liquid
Cohesion is greater than adhesion.
A liquid is said to wet the surface when
contact angle 𝜙 < 90° and not to wet the
surface when 𝜙 > 90°.
 ● The forces acting on the fluid are:
a) The lifting force (𝐹𝐿 ) due to surface tension 𝜎𝑠 along the circumference acting at an angle of contact (𝜙)
from the vertical.
b) The weight of the mass.

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎 In terms of radius R,
𝐹𝐿𝑦 𝐹𝐿𝑦 4𝜎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
+ − 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎 ; 𝑎 = 0 ℏ=
2 2
𝛾𝐷
𝐹𝐿𝑦 = 𝑊 ; 𝐹𝐿𝑦 = 𝐹𝐿 cos 𝜙
4𝜎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
ℏ=
𝛾(2𝑅)
𝐹𝐿 cos 𝜙 = 𝛾𝑉 ; 𝐹𝐿 = 𝜎𝑠 𝐿
𝟐𝝈𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓
𝜎𝑠 𝐿 cos 𝜙 = 𝛾𝑉; 𝐿 = 𝜋𝐷 ℏ=
𝜸𝑹
𝜋
𝜎𝑠 (𝜋𝐷) cos 𝜙 = 𝛾𝑉; 𝑉 = 𝐷2
4

𝜋
𝜎𝑠 (𝜋𝐷) cos 𝜙 = 𝛾( 𝐷2 )
4

𝟒𝝈𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓
ℏ=
𝜸𝑫
Where:
ℏ = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡
𝑁 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝛾 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑜𝑟
𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒, 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒, 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡
𝑁 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝜎𝑠 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑜𝑟
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, 𝜙= 0o
For mercury, 𝜙= 140°

EXAMPLE
A 0.6-mm-diameter glass tube is inserted into water at 20°C in a cup. Determine the capillary rise of water in
the tube.
Solution: for complete wetting (water)
Given:
D= 0.6mm 4𝜎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ
ħ=
Water; t= 20℃ 𝛾𝐷
Required: ħ= ?
ϴ= 0°

𝜎𝑠 @ 20℃ = 0.073 𝑁/𝑚

4(0.073 𝑁/𝑚) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(0)

ħ=
(9.8066 𝑘𝑁/𝑚³)(1000𝑁/1𝑘𝑁)0(. 6𝑚𝑚)(1𝑚/1000𝑚𝑚)

ħ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟔𝟐𝟔𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟒𝟗. 𝟔𝟐𝟔𝒎

Since ħ>0, :. it is capillary rise!

 EXAMPLE
Mercury is placed in a capillary tube, 2-mm in diameter, has surface tension of 0.5 N/m for compute for
capillary rise.
ħ=
4𝜎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ ħ = − 𝟓. 𝟕𝟒𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 𝒐𝒓 − 𝟓. 𝟕𝟒𝟒𝒎𝒎
𝛾𝐻𝑔 𝐷

ϴ= 0° Since ħ<0, it is capillary fall/depression!

𝛾𝐻𝑔 = 𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝜎𝑠 @ 20℃ = 0.073 𝑁/𝑚

4(0.5 𝑁/𝑚) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(140)

ħ=
(13.6)(9.8066 𝑘𝑁/𝑚³)(1000𝑁/1𝑘𝑁)0(2𝑚𝑚)(1𝑚/1000𝑚𝑚)

12. COMPRESSIBILITY (𝜿)

Also known as coefficient of compressibility
Fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant temperature process.
the coefficient of compressibility of a truly incompressible substance (v = constant) is infinity.
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝜌
𝑉0 𝜌
𝜅=− = 0
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
Δ𝑉 𝛥𝜌
𝑉 𝜌
𝜅=− 0 = 0
Δ𝑃 𝛥𝑃
13. BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (𝑬𝑩 )
Ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝐸𝐵 = =− =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 d𝑉 d𝜌
𝑉0 𝜌0
Δ𝑃 𝛥𝑃
𝐸𝐵 = Δ𝑉 = 𝛥𝜌
𝑉0 𝜌0
1
𝐸𝐵 =
𝜅
The elasticity of an ideal gas is proportional to the pressure, according to the ideal gas law. For an isothermal
process,
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝐸𝐵 = d𝜌 ; but d𝜌 = 𝑅𝑇 or 𝑑𝜌 = 𝑅𝑇
𝜌0
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝐸𝐵 = = 𝜌0
d𝜌 𝑑𝜌
𝜌0
𝐸𝐵 = 𝜌0 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑃
The elasticity of an ideal gas is proportional to the pressure, according to the ideal gas law. For an For an
adiabatic process,
𝐸𝐵 = 𝑘𝑃
where 𝑘 is the ratio of specific heats
EXAMPLE
A liquid which is compressed in a cubical container has a volume of 1000 cm3 at 2MPa and a volume of 990
cm3 at 2.5 MPa. Compute:

a) Bulk modulus of elasticity

P P − Po (2.5 − 2) MPa
EB = = = EB = −50MPa
V V − Vo (990 − 1000)cm3
Vo Vo 1000cm3
b) Percentage of volume decreased
V − Vo 990 − 1000
%V = = = −0.01
Vo 1000
%V = 1%decrease
c) Coefficient of compressibility
V V − Vo (990 − 1000)cm3
V Vo 1000cm3
κ= o = = =
P P − Po (2.5 − 2) MPa

1
κ = −0.02 = −0.02MPa −1
MPa
 FLUID PROPERTIES
Coefficient of Volume Expansion (𝜷)
Also known as volume expansivity
a property that represents the variation of the density of a fluid with temperature
at constant pressure.

The combined effects of pressure and temperature changes on the volume

change of a fluid can be determined by taking the specific volume to be a
function of T and P. Differentiating 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑇, 𝑃) and using the definitions of the
compression and expansion coefficients 𝜅 and 𝛽 give
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = ( )𝑃 𝑑𝑇 + ( ) 𝑇 𝑑𝑃 = (𝛽𝑑𝑇 − 𝜅𝑑𝑃)𝑉
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
The fractional change in volume (or density) due to changes in pressure and
temperature can be expressed approximately as
∆𝑉 ∆𝜌
=− ≅ 𝛽∆𝑇 − 𝜅∆𝑃
𝑉0 𝜌0
EXAMPLE
Consider water initially at 20°C and 1 atm. Determine the final density of water
(a) if it is heated to 50°C at a constant pressure of 1 atm, and
(b) if it is compressed to 100-atm pressure at a constant temperature of 20°C.
Take the isothermal compressibility of water to be 𝜅 =4.80 x 10-5 atm-1. Take 𝛽 =
0.337 𝑥 10−3 𝐾 −1 .
Viscosity (𝝁)
Also known as absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity property that
represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the “fluidity”
Property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to
shearing forces.
A perfect fluid would have no viscosity.
The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called the
drag force, and the magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity.

Consider two large, parallel plates at a small distance y apart, the space between
them, being filled with a fluid.
Consider the upper plate to be subject to a force F so as to move with constant
velocity 𝜗. The fluid in contact with upper plate will adhere to it and will move with
the same velocity 𝜗 while the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have zero
velocity.
 The fluid in contact with the lower plate assumes the velocity of that plate,
which is zero (again because of the no-slip condition). In steady laminar flow, the
fluid velocity between the plates varies linearly between 0 and 𝜗, and thus the
𝑑(𝑢)
velocity profile 𝑢(𝑦) and the velocity gradient are
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 𝑑(𝑢) 𝜗
𝑢 (𝑦 ) = 𝜗 and =
ℓ 𝑑𝑦 ℓ
During a differential time interval 𝑑𝑡, the sides of fluid particles along a
vertical line 𝑀𝑁 rotate through a differential angle 𝑑𝛽 while the upper plate
moves a differential distance 𝑑𝑎 = 𝜗𝑑𝑡. The angular displacement or
deformation (or shear strain) can be expressed as
𝑑𝑎 𝜗𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝛽 ≈ tan 𝛽 = = = 𝑑𝑡
ℓ ℓ 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝛽 𝑑𝑢
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦

The rate of deformation of a fluid element is equivalent to the velocity

gradient 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦.
Further, it can be verified experimentally that for most fluids the rate of
deformation (and thus the velocity gradient) is directly proportional to the shear
stress 𝜏.
Newton’s Law of Viscosity states that, the shear stress between adjacent
fluid layers is proportional to the velocity gradients between the two layers.

By Newton’s Law of Viscosity

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝛽
𝜏∝ or 𝜏 ∝
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝑘
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝜗
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

𝜏 𝜏
𝜇= 𝑜𝑟 𝜇 =
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜗
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Where:
𝜏= shear stress in Pa or 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
 𝜇= absolute viscosity in 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑓𝑡2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑠
𝑦= distance between two plates in 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚
𝜗= velocity in 𝑓𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/𝑠2
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜗
= = velocity gradient or rate of shear strain or rate of sheardeformation
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Each of these lines can be represented by the equation

𝑑𝜗
𝜏 = 𝐴 + 𝐵( )𝑛
𝑑𝑦
where A, B and n are constants. For Newtonian
fluids 𝐴 = 0, 𝜇and 𝑛 = 1.
Effects of Temperature on Viscosity

With increase in temperature:

Viscosity of liquids decreases
Viscosity of gases increases
Note:
1. Temperature responses are neglected in case of Mercury.
2. The lowest viscosity is reached at the critical temperature.

Effect of Pressure on Viscosity

Pressure has very little effect on viscosity.
But if pressure increases intermolecular gap decreases then cohesion increases
so viscosity would be increase.

Pressure has very little effect on viscosity.

But if pressure increases intermolecular gap decreases then cohesion increases
so viscosity would be increase.
𝑔
1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1
𝑐𝑚 − 𝑠
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 ∙ 𝑠
1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1
𝑐𝑚2
𝑘𝑔
1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.1
𝑚∙𝑠
𝑙𝑏𝑚
1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.0672
𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.0682
𝑓𝑡 2

𝑔
1 = 0.1 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
𝑐𝑚 ∙ 𝑠
1 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛 = 6.9 × 104 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 1
𝑁∙𝑠
1 = 4.7880 × 10 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
𝑓𝑡 2 𝑚2
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑘𝑔
1 = 47.88
𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚∙𝑠
10 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
 Empirical Formula for Absolute Viscosity

Poiseuille and Reynolds Equation for absolute viscosity of water

𝜇 = (1.78 × 10−3 )( 1 + 0.03368𝑡 + 0.00021𝑡 2 )−1
Where:
𝜇 = absolute viscosity in 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
𝑡 = temperature of water in ℃

Helmholtz Equation for Absolute Viscosity of Water

0.01779
𝜇=
1 + 0.03368𝑡 + 0.000221𝑡 2
Where:
𝜇 = absolute viscosity in poise
𝑡 = temperature of water in ℃

Sutherland Equation for Absolute Viscosity of Water

𝜇
𝑙𝑛 = −1.704 − 5.30𝑧 + 7.003𝑧 2
𝜇0
Where:
273
𝑧=
𝑇
𝜇0 = 1.71 × 10−5 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
𝜇 = absolute viscosity in 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
𝑇 = temperature of water in 𝐾
Grindley and Gibson’s Equation for Absolute Viscosity of Air
𝜇 = 0.0001702( 1 + 0.00329𝑡 + 0.000007𝑡2 )
Where:
𝜇= Absolute viscosity, Poise
𝑡= Temperature in ℃
Sutherland’s Law for Absolute Viscosity of Air
𝜇 𝑇 𝑇 +𝑆
= [ ]1.5 [ 𝑜 ]
𝜇𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝑇+𝑆
Where:
𝑆𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 110.4 𝐾
𝑇𝑜 = 273 𝐾
𝜇0 = 1.71𝑥10 − 5 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾
Power Law
𝜇 𝑇
= ( )𝑛
𝜇𝑜 𝑇𝑜
Where:
𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.7

Variation of Liquid Viscosity with Temperature

An equation for the variation of liquid viscosity with temperature is
𝑏
𝜇 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑇
where C and b are empirical constants that require viscosity data at two
temperatures for evaluation. This equation should be used primarily for data
interpolation.

Methods in Measuring Viscosity

Rotating Drum Viscometer
The dynamic viscosity of the fluid can be computed from
𝐾
𝜇=𝑛
2
−1
𝑛1
Where
𝑛2 is the speed of the outer tube and 𝑛1 is the speed of the internal rotor.
𝐾 is a calibration constant provided by the instrument manufacturer.
Capillary Tube Viscometer
As the fluid flows through the tube with a constant velocity, some energy is lost
from the system, causing a pressure drop that can be measured by using
manometers.
The magnitude of the pressure drop is related to the fluid viscosity by the
following equation,

Capillary Tube Viscometer

(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝐷2
𝜇=
32𝜗𝐿
Where 𝐷 is the inside diameter of the tube, 𝜗 is the fluid velocity, and 𝐿 is the
length of the tube between points 1 and 2 where the pressure is measured.
Figure shows a free-body diagram of the ball, where 𝑊 is the weight of the ball,
𝐹𝑏 , is the buoyant force, and 𝐹𝑑 is the viscous drag force on the ball.
𝑊 − 𝐹𝑏 − 𝐹𝑑 = 0
For very viscous fluids and a small velocity, the drag force on the sphere is
𝐹𝑑 = 3𝜋𝜇𝜗𝐷

Thus,
𝜋𝐷 3 𝜋𝐷 3
𝛾𝑠 ( ) − 𝛾𝑓 ( ) − 3𝜋𝜇𝜗𝐷 = 0
6 6
(𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾𝑓 )𝐷 2
𝜇=
18𝜗
EXAMPLE
Mercury at 20℃ has a viscosity of 1.58 x 10-2 poise. What is the force necessary
𝑚
to maintain a relative velocity of 2 between two plates that are separated by
𝑠
2
10cm and whose area is 0.10 m ?
A block weighing 2 kN and having dimensions 50 mm on an edge is allowed to
slide down an incline on a film of fluid having a thickness of 0.0050 mm. If we use
a linear velocity profile of the fluid and the plane is inclined 15o, compute:
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒−𝑠
A) Terminal speed of the block if 𝜇= 0.07 2 ; and
𝑐𝑚
B) The shear stress.
 Kinematic Viscosity 𝜈
ratio of dynamic viscosity to density.
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
Where:
𝜇 = absolute viscosity
𝜌 = density
Units:
𝑐𝑚2 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑚2
1 stoke (St) = 1 𝑠
=0.001076 𝑠
= 0.0001 𝑠
= 100 centistokes (cSt)

Methods in Measuring Kinematic Viscosity

Standard Calibrated Glass Capillary Viscometers
The kinematic viscosity is computed by multiplying the flow time by the calibration constant of the
viscometer supplied by the vendor.
The viscosity unit used in these tests is the centistoke (𝑐𝑆𝑡), which is equivalent to 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠.

● Standard Calibrated Glass Capillary Viscometers

-Cannon–Fenske routine viscometer - Ubbelohde viscometer

Saybolt Universal Viscometer

A device used to measure the viscosity of a fluid.
The ease with which a fluid flows through a small diameter orifice is an indication of its viscosity.
The Saybolt viscometer controls the heat of the fluid and the viscosity is the time it takes the fluid to fill a 60 cc
container.

Saybolt Universal Viscometer

1.8
𝜈= 0.0022(𝑆𝑈𝑆)– (𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒)
𝑆𝑈𝑆

] × 10−5 (𝑓𝑡 2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)

194
𝜈=[0.236(SUS) –
𝑆𝑈𝑆

Where SUS = Saybolt Universal Second,

time in seconds required for 60 cc of liquid

to pass through an opening standard size.

Saybolt Furol Viscometer
Used for heavy oils.
Same principle as Universal Viscosimeter except that it is designed with large orifice to accommodate more
viscous fluids.
Conversion:
1 Saybolt Furol Second (SFS) = 10 Saybolt Second Universal (SSU)
Engler Viscometer
Consists essentially of a cylindrical discharge container of brass (interior gold-plated), the bottom of
which is spherical; a small discharge tube is coated with nickel and accurately calibrated.
Engler orifice tapers from 2.9 to 2.8 mm in its 20 mm of length.
A wide-mouthed collecting flask is supported exactly beneath the orifice.
The discharge chamber is surrounded by concentric brass container (water bath).

The unit of measure is the Engler degrees (°𝐸).

The flow time in seconds obtained for 200 mL of test liquid at the prerecorded measuring temperature (e.g. 20
or 50 degrees) is divided by the flow of 200 mL of distilled water at 20 deg. C.
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 200 𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡℃
°𝐸 =
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 200 𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 20℃

𝜈 = 7.45°𝐸, 𝑐𝑆𝑡
403 −5 2
𝜈 = (0.158𝑡′ − 𝑡′
)× 10 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
Where t’ is in Saybolt seconds.

Redwood Viscometer
1. Redwood Viscometer No. 1 (Universal)
Consists of a cylindrical brass oil cup that holds the test sample.
Test temperatures are adjusted by means of a bath surrounding the oil cup.
The bottom of the oil cup is designed with a polished-agate discharge tube containing an orifice (tube, 10 mm
long and 1.62 mm diameter).
The time for 50 mL of the sample to flow through the orifice is measured. A calibrated receiving flask is
provided to receive the sample.

Redwood Viscometer
2. Redwood Viscometer No. 2 (Admiralty)
Designed with a larger discharge tube; it is 50 mm long and 3.80 mm in diameter.
Methods of testing a sample are the same. The receiving flasks are similar. However, Redwood No. 2 flask is
designed with a larger mouth than the other.
Test results are recorded in seconds, stating which viscometer was used and the test temperature.(e.g.
Viscosity Redwood no. 1 at 140F, 350 seconds)

Redwood Viscometer
Test results are recorded in seconds, stating which viscometer was used and the test temperature.(e.g.
Viscosity Redwood no. 1 at 140F, 350 seconds)
In general,
185
𝜈 = (0.280𝑡′ − ) × 10−5 𝑓𝑡 2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡′
Where t’ is in Saybolt seconds.
 ● Redwood Viscometer

EXAMPLE

𝑁𝑠 𝑚2
Calculate the density of fluid having an absolute viscosity of 0.89 𝑚2 and kinematic viscosity of 2 .
𝑠

No. 6 fuel oil has a viscosity of 3 Saybolt Furol and a specific gravity of approximately 1.0. Determine
the kinematic viscosity and absolute viscosity of the oil for both units.
 Celerity (c)
Also known as acoustical or sonic velocity
velocity of waves due to pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid.
the relative velocity of a wave with respect to the fluid in which it is travelling.
speed of sound is related to changes in the pressure and density of the fluid medium.
𝑑𝑃
𝑐= √
𝑑𝜌
Where: 𝑑𝑃 = pressure differential; 𝑑𝜌 = density differential

(note) When a sudden disturbance is introduced into a fluid, such as suddenly shutting of a valve, that
disturbance will propagate through the fluid at a finite velocity. This means that when you shut that
valve the disturbance will not be felt instantaneously upstream. Instead, it will move up stream at a
finite velocity or acoustic velocity known as the speed of sound. The speed of sound is related to
changes in the pressure and density of the fluid medium.

The speed of sound can also be related to the fluid bulk modulus using the following equation.
𝐸𝐵 𝓀 𝓀
𝑐= √ = √
𝜌 𝜅𝜌
Where: 𝜅 = compressibility
𝓀 = proportionality constant 𝜌 = density
𝐸𝐵 = Bulk Modulus of elasticity
The disturbance that propagates through a fluid is normally small. Due to this fact the heat
transferred by the disturbance is negligible. Because of this it can be assumed that we will be dealing
with an isentropic process. As a result the speed of sound can be calculated by using the following
equation.
𝑃𝑘𝓀
𝑐= √
𝜌
Where:
𝓀 = proportionality constant;
𝑘 = specific heat ratio 𝑐𝑝/𝑐𝑣
𝑃 = pressure
𝜌 = density

For ideal gas,

𝑐 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇𝓀
Where: 𝓀 = proportionality constant;
𝑘 = specific heat ratio 𝑐𝑝/𝑐𝑣
𝑅 = gas constant
𝑇 = absolute temperature
Approximate formula can be used to determine celerity for ideal gas,
𝑇𝐾
𝑐 = 331√
273
𝑐 = 331 + 0.6𝑡℃
Where:
𝑇𝐾 = absolute temperature in K
𝑡℃ = temperature in ℃
Mach Number (M)
the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound in the surrounding medium.
𝜗𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝜗𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑀= =
𝑐 𝜗𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
Since there is a relationship between pressure and density a pressure wave builds up as an object
approaches the speed of sound. Because of this pressure wave, it is impossible for an object to travel
exactly at this speed.
The reason why is because as the object moves at this speed the pressure wave will continue to build
until it destroys the object.

(note) This is why jets have after burners. The after burners are used to get the jet past this building pressure
wave and essentially break the sound barrier causing the jet to out run its pressure wave which is referred to
as the sonic boom.
The Mach number M allows us to define flight regimes in which compressibility effects vary.
Subsonic conditions occur for Mach numbers less than one, M < 1 . For the lowest subsonic conditions,
compressibility can be ignored.
As the speed of the object approaches the speed of sound, the flight Mach number is nearly equal to one, M =
1, and the flow is said to be transonic.
At some places on the object, the local speed exceeds the speed of sound.
Compressibility effects are most important in transonic flows and lead to the early belief in a sound barrier.
Flight faster than sound was thought to be impossible. In fact, the sound barrier was only an increase in the
drag near sonic conditions because of compressibility effects. Because of the high drag associated with
compressibility effects, aircraft do not cruise near Mach 1.
Supersonic conditions occur for Mach numbers greater than one. (A Mach 3.0 aircraft flies at 3.0 times the
local speed of sound.)
Compressibility effects are important for supersonic aircraft, and shock waves are generated by the surface of
the object.
For speeds much greater than the speed of sound (typically greater than Mach 5.0) the flow is said to be
hypersonic.
At these speeds, some of the energy of the object now goes into exciting the chemical bonds holding the
nitrogen and oxygen molecules together. So the thermo-chemistry of the gas must be considered when
determining forces on the object.

Mach Cone (𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 )

the conical pressure wave front produced by a body moving at a speed greater than that of sound.
 Mach Cone (𝝁𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒆 )
𝑐
sin(𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 ) =
𝜗
1
sin(𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 ) =
𝜗
𝑐
1
sin(𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 ) =
𝑀
1
𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = sin−1( )
𝑀

Mach Cone (𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 )

▪ at subsonic condition ,𝜗 < 𝑐; thus 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 > 1 which is impossible and reiterates the fact that there is
no Mach cone at subsonic regimes.
▪ at transonic condition, 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 90°
▪ at supersonic condition, 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 < 90.
EXAMPLE
Find the speed of sound in air at 23.0℃

EXAMPLE
A sonar transmitter operates at 2 impulses per second. If the device is held to the surface of fresh water (𝐸𝐵 =
2.04 × 109 𝑀𝑃𝑎) and the echo is received midway between impulses, how deep is the water?