`

ENERGY SOURCES AND

STORAGE DEVICES
MODULE 3
 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

MODULE-3

Batteries, Types-Primary Battery and Secondary Batteries, Primary Battery (Zn-Air Battery),
Secondary batteries ─ Lithium-Ion Batteries Construction, Working and Applications, Fuel cells
─ classifica on, advantages and limita ons, Construc on and cell reac ons of hydrogen-
oxygen fuel cell, Bio-Fuel cells ─ prepara ons, advantages and limitations, Nuclear Energy –
Definition, different types of nuclear reactions, Applications, Wind Energy – Definition,
working, Applications, Solar cells – Definition, pathways of solar energy conversion,
Applications, Construction and working of photovoltaic cells.

MODULE-2
 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Lecture-19
Energy storage devices: Batteries ─ Characteris cs, Types of ba eries

Battery:
 A battery is an electrochemical device, consisting of one or more electrochemical cells, that
stores energy and then discharges it by converting chemical energy into electrical energy.
 It comprises of two electrodes.
1. Anode
2. Cathode
 The electrolyte is present between the electrodes which helps in migration of ions thereby
leading to generation of electricity.
 At each electrode a half-cell electrochemical reaction takes place.
 A separator (a thin polymeric membrane) is used which prevents the mixing of products
formed at the electrodes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BATTERIES:
 A battery should be reasonably light, compact
 It should have a low self-discharge rate. (Self-discharge rate is a measure of how quickly a cell
will lose its energy due to unwanted chemical reaction that occur within the cell).
 The internal parts of the battery shouldn’t corrode or convert to its inactive forms.
(Corrosion affects the functioning of the battery).
 Current Capacity: A good battery should have high current capacity (amount of current
generated in unit time).
 Self-discharge: Fast charging increases the changes in the components, shortening the life
span of the battery, which might lead to heating up of battery and in turn explosion of
battery. Therefore should have a slow charge or discharge rate.
 Battery should have a long life even when not in use.
 Battery Life: Batteries life can be extended by storing at low temperatures, as in refrigerator
or freezer which prevents unnecessary reactions.
 Battery size: Primary batteries ranges from tiny button cells (watches) to No. 6 cell used for
signal circuit or other long duration applications. Secondary batteries are made in large size.
 Energy efficiency: It is the amount of energy the can be taken from the battery compared to
the amount of energy that was charged in the battery.

TYPES OF BATTERIES:

 Depending upon the type of the reaction the batteries are of the following types-
1) Primary cells
2) Secondary cells

BATTERIES MODULE-3 L19

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

1. Primary Battery:
The batteries in which irreversible chemical reaction takes place are called as primary
batteries.
The chemical energy is converted to electrical energy as long as the chemical components
are active. Once the active components are used, they cannot be reused or regenerated
These cells are not rechargeable
E.g., Dry cell, Mercury cell, Zinc-Air cell, Lithium cells, Li/MnO2 Cell, etc.

2. Secondary Battery:
Secondary cells are the batteries in which reversible chemical reaction takes place.
In these cells, the redox reaction that converts chemical energy into electrical energy, can be
reversed by the passage of current.
These cells can be recharged and reused.
The electrical energy can be stored in them in the form of chemical energy and hence these
are also known as storage cells
E.g., lead acid battery, nickel-cadmium battery, nickel metal hydride battery, lithium ion
battery, etc.

Discharging Charging

BATTERIES MODULE-3 L19

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Differences between primary batteries and secondary batteries

Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries

Cell reactions are irreversible. Cell reactions are reversible.
Must be discarded after use. Can be reused.
Have shorter shelf life. Have longer shelf life.
They function only as galvanic cell. They function as both galvanic and electrolytic
cell.
Cannot be used as energy storage devices. Can be used as energy storage devices.
They cannot be recharged. They can be recharged.
Ex- Zn-Air flow battery. Ex- Lithium-ion batteries

BATTERIES MODULE-3 L19

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Lecture-20
Primary Battery (Zn-Air Battery)
Primary cells:-
The cells in which the cell reaction is not reversible are known as Primary cells. Thus, when the reactants
have for the most part been converted to products, no more electricity is produced and the battery or cell
becomes “dead”.
Ex: Zn-Air Battery
(i) Zn-Air Battery:
Zn-Air flow battery (ZAFB) consists of two electrodes: a Zn anode and an air cathode. The anode and
cathode are separated by a separator allowing ions to transfer across the cell. Potassium hydroxide
(KOH) aqueous solution is used as an electrolyte

Anode: Zn + 4OH– → Zn(OH)42– + 2e–

Fluid: Zn(OH)42– → ZnO + H2O + 2OH–
Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–
Overall: 2Zn + O2 → 2ZnO (E0 = 1.65 V)

BATTERIES MODULE-3 L20

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Lecture-21
Secondary batteries ─ Lithium-Ion Batteries Construction, Working and
Applications
Lithium ion batteries:

Lithium-ion batteries are among the most popular rechargeable batteries and are used in many portable
electronic devices.
• Anode: Partially Lithiated oxides of Ni, Co and Mn like Li3NiO 2, LiyCoO2 and LiyMnO4
• Cathode: Lithium intercalated graphite/carbon,
• Separator: Fine porous polymer film.
•Electrolyte: Lithium salt (LiPF6) in an organic solvent (propylene carbonate or 1,2 dimethoxymethane).
Lithium-ion

BATTERIES MODULE-3 L21

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

 In a lithium-ion battery, charge flows between the electrodes as the lithium ions move between
the anode and cathode.
 With the coefficients representing moles, x is no more than about 0.5 moles. The battery voltage
is about 3.7 V.
 Lithium batteries are popular because they can provide a large amount current, are lighter than
comparable batteries of other types, produce a nearly constant voltage as they discharge, and
only slowly lose their charge when stored.

BATTERIES MODULE-3 L21

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

APPLICATIONS:
Some of the most common applications of lithium-ion batteries are:
 Power backups/UPS
 Mobile, Laptops, and other commonly used consumer electronic goods
 Electric mobility
 Energy Storage Systems

BATTERIES MODULE-3 L21

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Lecture-22
Fuel cells ─ classification, advantages and limitations, Construction and cell
reactions of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

Fuel cells:-
“A device for converting the energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy is known as a fuel cell”.
It acts as a simple galvanic cell.
Cell reaction is not reversible
Do not store energy
Energy can be withdrawn indefinitely as long as outside supply of fuel is maintained

When a fuel is burned, the electron exchange takes place only when the atoms of the oxidizing agent
(oxygen or air) come in direct contact with the atoms of the substance being oxidized (the fuel). The
energy is released as heat. In a fuel cell, electric energy is obtained without combustion from oxygen and
a gas that can be oxidized. Hence, a fuel cell converts chemical energy of the fuel cells directly to
electricity. The process in fuel cell is,

Ex: - Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell

Hydrogen –oxygen fuel cell:- One of the simplest and most successful fuel cell is Hydrogen –oxygen fuel
cell. It consists essentially of an electrolytic solution such as 25% KOH solution, and two inert porous
electrodes. Hydrogen and oxygen gas are bubbled through the anode and cathode compartment
respectively, where the following reactions take place.

The standard E.M.C of the cell

E0 = Eoxd + Ered = 0.83v +0.40v= 1.23v
In actual practice, the E.M.C of the cell is 0.8 to 1.0v. It may be note that the product discharged by the
cell is water. Usually, a large number of these cells are stacked together in series to make a battery called
fuel battery.
It may be pointed have that the electrodes must meet stringent requirements, they must
 Be good conductors
 Be good electron-sources or sinks, and
 Not be consumed or deteriorated by the electrolyte heat or electrode reactions.

FUEL CELLS MODULE-3 L22

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Advantages:-
1. High efficiency.
2. No unwanted noise and less maintenance.
3. No pollution.
4. Good fuel efficiency.
5. No need to change the electrode often.
6. Used in space vehicles.
Disadvantages:-
1. Difficult to find suitable electro-catalysts.
2. Large-scale production is difficult.
3. Maintenance of electrode is difficult.
4. Due to electrode problem, it is expensive.
Applications of Oxygen fuel cell:
1. They are used as auxiliary energy source in space vehicle, submarine or other military vehicles.
2. Because of the light weight these fuel cells are preferred for space crafts and product H 2O is a
valuable fresh water source for astronauts.
Limitations:
1. The life time of fuel cells is not accurately known.
2. Their initial cost is high.
3. The distribution of hydrogen is not proper.

FUEL CELLS MODULE-3 L22

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Lecture-23
Bio-Fuel cells ─ preparations, advantages and limitations

Bio-fuels:-
Bio-fuels may be derived from agricultural crops, including conventional food plants or from special
energy crops. Bio-fuels may also be derived from forestry, agricultural or fishery products or municipal
wastes, as well as from agro-industry, food industry and food service by-products and wastes.
In order to be considered a bio-fuel the fuel must contain over 80 percent renewable materials. It is
originally derived from the photosynthesis process and can therefore often be referred to as a solar
energy source. There are many pros and cons to using bio-fuels as an energy source.
Advantages of Bio-fuels:-
1. Cost: The potential to cost less than fossil fuels (Will increase in importance as price for fossil fuels
will rise when the amount available lowers).
2. Lower carbon emissions: When bio-fuels are being burned, they produce less carbon output and
fewer toxins.
3. Renewability and availability: Unlike fossil fuels, bio-fuels won’t take long to be able ‘harvest’.
And are renewable due to their short time needed to grow.
4. Economic stimulation and security: Where fossil fuels often travel thousands of miles, bio-fuels
can be gathered locally offering jobs for hundreds and thousands of people.
Disadvantages of Bio-fuels:-
1. Lower output: Bio-fuels offer a lower energy output than fossil fuels, therefore need a larger
amount for the same energy.
2. Production Carbon Emissions: Where the burning of bio-fuels creates less carbon output and
toxins the production is a different thing. Due to nitrate fertilizers and machinery necessary to
cultivate the plants several studies have shown that they sometimes create equally or even more
greenhouse gasses than the fossil fuels.
3. Food prices and shortages (Mostly for bio-ethanol): Food prices may rise and shortages occur
due to the growing demand for bio-fuels.
4. Water use: Massive quantities of water are used for the cultivation of these plants.

Biodiesel:-
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel which can be used in diesel engines with little or no modifications. It is a
mixture of several alkyl esters produced from vegetable oils. The vegetable oil is heated with an alcohol
(typically methanol is used) and an aqueous solution of an alkali (potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide) added as a catalyst. The glycerol molecule from the vegetable oil is exchanged with methanol
to form another ester. This process is called trans-esterification.
Production of Bio-diesel:-
There are three basic technological routes to biodiesel production from oils and fats:

NUCLEAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L23

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

 Base catalyzed transesterification of the oil with alcohol.

 Direct acid catalyzed esterification of the oil with methanol.
 Conversion of the oil to fatty acids, and then to Alkyl esters with acid catalysis.
The process that is most widely used is the transesterification. In this process, vegetable oils and a short
chain alcohol (methanol or ethanol mainly) in the presence of a catalyser (usually NaOH or KOH) are
turned into alkyl esters and glycerine. This is not only the most economical route, but also:
 It has a high rate of reaction conversion (98%) with low reaction time and minimum side
reactions.
 Presents direct conversion to alkyl ester without any intermediate steps.
 The reaction is carried out under low temperature (about 65°C) and low pressure (about
1.4 bar).
 There is no need to use advanced or special materials of construction.
Procedure:-
Moisture free oil or fat (with less than 5% free acid) and dry methanol or ethanol are taken in 1:3:5 molar
ratio in a three-neck round bottom flask)with arrangement of magnetic stirrer and heating) and catalyst
sodium methoxide maintained about 2% by weight. The mixture is heated at 60℃ , and purified by using
vacuum distillation.
The chemical reaction can be represented as following:

In general terms, 100 kg of vegetable oil reacting with 10 kg of alcohol yield 100 kg of biodiesel and 10 kg
of Glycerine.

Advantages of Biodiesel:-
 Derivation from a renewable domestic resource, thus reducing dependence on and preserving
petroleum
 Biodegradability
 Reduction of most exhaust emissions (Exception NOx)

NUCLEAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L23

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

 Higher flash point leading to safer handling and storage

 Excellent lubricity

Disadvantages of Biodiesel:-
 Inherent higher price
 High expensive Feedstock’s
 Increased NOx exhaust emissions due to reduced excise taxes

NUCLEAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L23

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Lecture-24
Nuclear Energy – Definition, different types of nuclear reactions, Applications

NUCLEAR ENERGY:

Nuclear energy is a form of energy released from the nucleus, the core of atoms, made up of protons and
neutrons. This source of energy can be produced in two ways: fission – when nuclei of atoms split into several
parts or fusion – when nuclei fuse together.

Nuclear energy is a clean, safe, reliable and competitive energy source. It is the only source of energy that can
replace a significant part of the fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) which massively pollute the atmosphere and
contribute to the greenhouse effect. In burning fossil fuels, we inject 23 billion tons of carbon dioxide every
year into the atmosphere – 730 tons per second. Half of it is absorbed in the seas and vegetation, but half
remains in the atmosphere. This is significantly altering the composition of the atmosphere and seriously
affecting the climate of our planet.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS:

NuclearFission
1. It is the nuclear reaction in which heavy isotopes are split into lighter nuclei on
bombardment by neutrons. Fission is not a spontaneous process.
2. It can only occur when a slow-moving neutron strikes an unstable nucleus.
3. In this decay process, the nucleus will split into two nearly equal nuclei and release several free
neutrons and huge amounts of energy.
4. If these neutrons are absorbed by other nuclei, this causes a chain reaction.

Fission reaction of U235 is given below:

92 U
235
 0n1 36Kr92  56Ba141  3 0n1  energy

NUCLEAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L24

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Figure: Structure of fission reaction

Nuclear Fusion
Process of combination of lighter nuclei into heavier nucleus with simultaneous liberation of
large amount of energy.

1H
2
 1H2  2He4  energy.
 When fusion happens, the products have a larger binding energy than the reactants. The mass
defect results in the release of huge amounts of energy.
 Actually, produces more energy per gram of products than fission and produces no by-
products
Why isn’t it used yet then for energy production?
 It currentlyrequires more energy to initiate the reaction than it produces.
 Heat produced is so intense that containment vessels melt.
Why does fusion require energy?
 To combine, two nuclei must be close enough for the strong nuclear force to join them. But when
the positive nuclei approach, the electrostatic force of repulsion is greater than the nuclear force.
This means that the nuclei must be HIGHLY energetic to overcome the repulsion force.
 This means HIGH temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius), which is difficult to achieve while
containing the atoms.
 Nuclear fusion is the energy-producing process taking place in the core of the Sun and stars.
 The core temperature of the Sun is about 15 million °C. At these temperatures, four hydrogen atoms
fuse in a series of reactions to form a single helium atom and give off huge amounts of energy.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FISSION AND FUSION REACTION

NUCLEAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L24

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

[Link] Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

1. It is a process of breaking a heavier It is a process of combination of lighter nuclei
nucleus
2. It emits radioactive rays It does not emit any kind of radioactive rays
3. The mass number and atomic The mass number and atomic number of
number of new elements are lower products is higher than that of starting
than starting elements elements
4. It occurs at ordinary temperature It occurs at high temperature
5. It gives rise to chain reaction It does not give rise to chain reaction
6. It emits neutrons It emits positrons
7. It can be controlled It cannot be controlled

Applications:
 Nuclear power plants operate by precisely controlling the rate at which nuclear reactions occur,
and that control is maintained through the use of several redundant layers of safety measures.
Moreover, the materials in a nuclear reactor core and the uranium enrichment level make a
nuclear explosion impossible, even if all safety measures failed.
 Nuclear weapons are specifically engineered to produce a reaction that is so fast and
intense that it cannot be controlled after it has started. When properly designed, this
1 uncontrolled reaction can lead to an explosive energy release.

Limitations:
 Nuclear waste: Nuclear waste is difficult to store and dispose of.
 Radiation: Nuclear explosions produce radiation that can harm cells, making people sick or even
killing them. Illness can appear years after exposure.
 Uranium: Uranium is a finite material that's mined from the ground and can only be found in
certain locations. It's also technically non-renewable.
 Cost: Nuclear power plants have high installation costs. If nuclear energy is not economical to
produce compared to other sources, cheaper sources may be prioritized.
 Accidents: Accidental leakage of radiation or large-scale accidents can be catastrophic.

NUCLEAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L24

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

NUCLEAR REACTOR

A nuclear reactor is a vessel in which a nuclear reaction is carried out and maintained. The
purpose of a nuclear reactor is to generate electricity, propel submarines and large ships, district
heating systems, for steam powered air craft catapult etc.
The principle involved in the functioning of a nuclear reactor is nuclear fission. In nuclear fission,
the nucleus of a heavy element is hit by a neutron due to which it breaks into different smaller
nuclei. The resulting fragments are not of the same element hence this is a process of nuclear
transmutation.

Components which are common to most types of the nuclear reactors are:
 Fuel
 Moderator
 Control Rods
 Coolant
 Pressure Vessel
 Steam Generator
 Containment

Figure: Nuclear Power Plant

NUCLEAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L24

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

1. Fuel: The most common fuel used in nuclear reactors is Uranium. The Uranium are filled inside
tubes to take shape of a rod, they are also refereed as fuel rods.
2. Moderator: When the neutrons are released from the core, they travel very fast which may
lead to them causing less fission. In order to increase the rate of fission, moderators are used to
slow down the neutrons so that they may cause fission. The moderator is a material which is
filled throughout the reactor. This material can be water, graphite or heavy water.
3. Control Rods: They are materials which are made in shape of the cylinder and are made up of
neutron absorbing material. They are used to control the rate of reaction by either lowering the
rods inside the reactor or withdrawing it.
4. Coolant: When the nuclear fission reaction happens in the core of the reactor a lot of heat is
generated. The function of a coolant is to remove this heat. The purpose of the removal of heat
is to not let temperature rise so high inside the reactor that the heat melts the internals of the
core and another main purpose is to transfer the heat to water to transform it into steam.
5. Pressure Vessel: It is a large robust vessel which contains the core of the reactor along with all
the internals along with the coolant and its delivering mechanism.
6. Steam Generator: Some reactors contain secondary systems in coolant delivery system such as
heat exchangers wherein heat is exchanged with water which gets converted into steam. In
some reactor systems the coolant circulating around the core itself gets converted into steam.
7. Containment: It is a large structure which contains and covers all the components of nuclear
reactor and steam generator. The containment walls are several meters thick and they are
made in this way to protect everyone from the effects of radiation in case the reactor
malfunctions.

NUCLEAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L24

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Lecture-25
Wind Energy – Definition, working, Applications

WIND ENERGY
Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the forces of wind is called wind energy.
 Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity, using wind
turbines.
 Wind turbines produce electricity by using the natural power of the wind to drive a
generator.
 The wind is a clean and sustainable fuel source, it does not create emissions and it will
never run out as it is constantly replenished by energy from the sun.
 In many ways, wind turbines are the natural evolution of traditional windmills, but
now typically have three blades, which rotate around a horizontal hub at the top of a
steel tower.
 Most wind turbines start generating electricity at wind speeds of around 3-4 meters
per second (m/s), (8 miles per hour); generate maximum ‘rated’ power at around 15
m/s (30mph); and shut down to prevent storm damage at 25 m/s or above (50mph).

Working
 Generating electricity from the wind is simple: Wind passes over the blades exerting a
turning force. The rotating bladesturn a shaft inside the nacelle, which goes into a gearbox.
 The gearbox increases the rotation speed for the generator, which uses magnetic fields to
convert the rotational energy into electrical energy.
 The output of a wind turbine depends on the turbine's size and the wind's speed through the
rotor. An average onshore wind turbine with a capacity of 2.5–3 MW can produce more than 6
million kWh in a year – enough to supply 1,500 average households with electricity.
 The regional electricity distribution networks or National Grid transmit the electricity around
the country, and on into homes and businesses.

WIND ENERGY MODULE-3 L-26

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Components of a typical wind turbine

Advantages
(i) It is cheap and economical.
(ii) It is renewable and
(iii) It does not cause pollution.
Disadvantages
(i) They produce noise.
(ii) Wind farms erected on the migratory routes of birds create problems.
(iii) Wind turbines interfere with electromagnetic signals.

WIND ENERGY MODULE-3 L-26

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Lecture-26
Solar cells – Definition, pathways of solar energy conversion, Applications
SOLAR ENERGY: -
Solar energy is the most readily available source of energy. It does not belong to anybody and is,
therefore, free. It is also the most important of the non-conventional sources of energy because it is non-
polluting and, therefore, helps in lessening the greenhouse effect.
When we hang out our clothes to dry in the sun, we use the energy of the sun. In the same way,
solar panels absorb the energy of the sun to provide heat for cooking and for heating water. Such systems
are available in the market and are being used in houses and factories.
Solar energy can also be used to meet our electricity requirements. Through Solar Photovoltaic
(SPV) cells, solar radiation gets converted into DC electricity directly. This electricity can either be used as
it is or can be stored in the battery. This stored electrical energy then can be used at night.

SPV can be used for a number of applications such as:

 Domestic lighting.
 Street lighting.
 Village electrification.
 Water pumping.
 Desalination of salty water.
 Powering of remote telecommunication repeater stations.
 Railway signals.
If the means to make efficient use of solar energy could be found, it would reduce our dependence on
non-renewable sources of energy and make our environment cleaner.

Applications:-
1. Solar cells are used in calculators, watches, etc.
2. Solar cells are used to drive vehicles.
3. Solar cells are used in boilers to produce hot water for domestic and industrial purpose.
4. If properly designed, it can be used for lighting purposes.
5. Solar cells made of silicon have been used as a source of power in space crafts and satellites.
6. It can be used to re-charge Ni-Cd and lead acid storage batteries.
7. It can also be used to produce hydrogen by electrolysis of water. The liberated H2 can be used in
H2O2 fuel cells.
The only drawback is the capital cost. However, expensive research is being carried out to reduce the
cost.
Advantages of Solar Energy:-
1. It is one of the most readily available sources of energy.
2. It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
3. It is an uninterrupted and continuous source.
4. Solar Energy doesn’t give rise to any chemical or sound pollution.

SOLAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L-26

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

5. It can be used directly for baking, drying. Devices like solar heater facilitate its use.
6. Solar devices can be installed in remote, inaccessible areas like forests, deserts, mountains, off-
shore platforms, remote oceanic islands.
7. It is possible to produce Solar Energy in large quantities.
8. Poor tropical countries have locations which are advantageous for solar energy production.
9. More the number of solar units we have, the more units of energy will be produced. It is directly
proportional.
10. It can be used directly in conjunction with other conventional or non-conventional energy supply
systems.
11. Cost of maintenance is low.
Limitations of Solar Energy:-
1. Solar energy is mostly available in tropical and sub-tropical areas. The region with maximum solar
energy potential is lying between 50 degrees north and south of equator. As we move towards
poles, proportion of solar energy received by earth goes on decreasing.
2. It is seasonal in nature and cannot be utilized during monsoon or when weather is cloudy.
3. The solar power technology is still at infant stage and is quite expensive.
4. Cost of installation of solar energy plant is very high.
5. During night it is not possible to produce Solar Energy.
6. Storage of this form of energy is difficult.
7. At present heavy machines are not possible to operate on this source.
8. Solar panels consume land, as power generation per unit square is low.
9. Silicon, used in production of SPV (Solar Photo Voltaic), is a pollutant.
Return of Investment (ROI) on solar energy takes around 3-5 years.

Pathways for solar energy conversion:-

Solar energy can be converted in three ways
1) Solar Thermal Conversion
It involves solar power conversion to usable heat. Eg Thermal collectors
Solar energy is collected as high-temperature heat, generally by means of mirrors or lenses that
track the motion of the sun and direct a concentrated solar flux onto a receiver. Temperatures up
to 1000 K can be generated by this means, high enough to produce the high-pressure steam used
in modern steam turbines to generate electricity.

SOLAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L-26

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

The solar radiation is absorbed by the black plate and transfers heat to the fluid in the tubes. The
thermal insulation prevents heat loss during fluid transfer; the screens reduce the heat loss due to
convection and radiation to the atmosphere.

2) Photovoltaic Conversion
It involves direct conversion to electricity through photovoltaic effect. Eg Photovoltaic cells.
Photovoltaic cells are also called solar cells.
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) is a technology that converts sunlight (solar radiation) into direct current
electricity by using semiconductors. When the sun hits the semiconductor within the PV cell,
electrons are freed and form an electric current.
The device developed for converting solar energy to electricity is called a solar cell or a
photovoltaic cell or photo-galvanic cell. A solar cell is made by interconnecting a large number of

SOLAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L-26

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

photovoltaic cells. Solar energy is the outcome of the thermo –nuclear fusion reactions that takes place in
the sun.

TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS:

The solar cells are of three types.
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

Monocrystalline silicone cells

 Monocrystalline solar panels are the oldest type of solar panel and the most developed.
 These monocrystalline solar panels are made from about 40 of the monocrystalline solar cells.
 These solar cells are made from pure silicon.
Polycrystalline silicon cells
 Polycrystalline cells are made from silicon.
 But polycrystalline cells are made from fragments of the silicon crystal melted together.
 They are less efficient than the monocrystalline silicone cells.

Amorphous silicon cells

 Amorphous silicone cells are obtained by depositing the silicone film on substrate like glass plate.
 They are least efficient of the three types.

3) Photochemical Conversion
It involves conversion solar energy to matter or fuel. Eg Biomass production through
photosynthesis.

SOLAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L-26

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

In order for a photochemical reaction to take place, photons of light must be absorbed

SOLAR ENERGY MODULE-3 L-26

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

Lecture-27
Construction and working of photovoltaic cells

PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT:
 The generation of the voltage across the PN junction in a semiconductor due to the absorption of
light radiation is called photovoltaic effect.
 The device working on this effect is called as photovoltaic device.
Principle:-
A solar cell consists of a p-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n –type semiconductor
(such as Si doped with P or As). The semiconductors are in close contact with each other, so that a
limited extent of Electrons (from n-type) migrate and positive holes (from p-type) have possibility to
cross the junction between the two types of semiconductors. The schematic diagram of a bulb lit by
solar power is shown in Fig.

Working:-
When a beam of sunlight falls on the outer layer of the n-type semiconductor, the valence electrons
absorb energy from the incident beam and are promoted to the conduction band. These conduction
electrons cross easily into p-type semiconductor. The flow of electrons is the flow of electricity. A
potential difference between the two layers is created, causing the flow of electrons. The current
obtained depends on the extent of solar energy that falls on the semiconductor. These two
semiconductors are attached to two terminals, across which the potential is developed can be
measured. Electrons flow from the n- layer to the p – layer externally as they are connected to an
external circuit, thereby generating current.

Construction:
 Solar cell consists of a n type semiconductor (emitter) layer and p type semiconductor layer
(base).
 The two layers are sandwiched and therefore formation of a p-n junction is observed.

SOLAR CELLS MODULE-3 L-27

 ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

 The surface is coated with anti reflection coating to avoid the loss of incident light energy due to
reflection.

Drawbacks:
 Space requirements: Land-mounted solar panels require a large area of land.
 Environmental impact: The manufacturing process for solar panels can create harmful substances
like nitrous oxide gas and perfluorocarbon, which contribute to global warming. The panels
themselves can also be toxic to the environment if not disposed of properly.
 Transmission: It's difficult and inefficient to transmit solar energy over long distances.
 DC to AC conversion: The current produced by solar panels is DC, so additional equipment like
inverters is required to convert it to AC.

SOLAR CELLS MODULE-3 L-27