Operational Amplifiers An OP AMP Schmitt trigger uses - % a) positive feedback b) __ negative feedback c) compensating capacitor d) pull-up resistor [Link] can amplify - (March 2002) a) DCsignals only b) AC signals only ©) _ both AC and DC signals d) none of these. Off-set adjustment is necessary in... é Kee) a) IC555 b). IC741 cc) Ic3I7 d)_1C340 If input voltages to an inverting adder are V;, V2, V3 then the mathematical expression for its output voltage Vy is given by... Que) a) Vo=-(2V, + V2+3V3) b) Vo=-Vi-V2-Vs ©). Vo=(Vi-V2-Vs) d) None of these In Op-Amp inverting amplifier circuit, the inverting terminal voltage is equal to... (March 2004) a) inputvoltage —_b) output voltage ) supply voltage d) zero voltage Slew-rate of an Op-Amp is measured in. : (Oct. 2004)} a) psec/V __b) V/psec ©) pV/sec d) wV/usec When op-anip is used to detect the voltage level then the circuit is called as. a) integrator b) differentiator c)comparator_ _d) buffer suum Stage of operational amplifier rejects the noise signal. a) _ level shifter b) differential amplifier ’ c) emitter follower d) output Anon-inverting amplifier uses ..... feedback. a) Positive b) . Negative ©) Both positive and negative d) —_ None of these The output impedance of an ideal Op-Amp ii a) infinite b) zero c) 572 d) 752 For IC 741, offset adjustment is provided between pin a). 2and3 b) land5 c) 4and8 d) 2and5 Can) ERE) Ans. : 1) Positive feedback 2) Both AC and DC signals 3) IC 741 4) Vo=-V-V2-Vs 5) zero voltage 6) Viuisee 7) Comparator 8) Differential amplifier 9) Negative 10) zero 11) 1 and 5 The unity gain frequency (gain bandwidth product) of Op-Amp is 1 MHz, maximum gain of Op-Amp for 20 kHz frequency without distortion will be 50.TPS Electronic Paper=1 42 ___ Operational Ampiifig, 13) Op-Amp normally requires a dual power supply. Ea 14) In an Op-Amp differential mode gain is 80 dB and common mode gain is 20 gp Therefore its CMRR is 60 dB. 15) Since the input resistance of an Op-Amp is infinite, its input current is zero. 16) inan ideal differential amplifier, the voltage depends on two different signals. 17) InOp-Amp drift is change of parameters with respect to change in temperature, 18) Slew rate of Op-Amp is measured in volt/js. 19) _Innon-inverting Op-Amp the output is in phase with the input voltage. > 20) Op-Amps have become very popular in industry mainly because their exter characteristics can be changed to suit any application. 21) _Inan inverting Op-Amp the output is in opposite phase with the input voltage. 22) For a better performance of Op-Amp, input offset current should be as minimum as possible. 23) For Op-Amp the change in offset current and offset voltage due to temperature is termed as drift. 24) Fora practical Op-Amp the input offset voltage drift is normally measured in terms o nV/°C 25) When an Op-Amp is used as an integrator, the output voltage is given by 1 Vo=-Re. Ivvat 26) An Op-Amphas zero output impedance. 27) When an Op-Amp is used as a differentiator then output is given by V,=—RC dv/dt. Cats WET e eee 28) We can avoid noise triggering by using a Schmitt Trigger. 29) Due to slew rate at higher frequencies triangular output is obtained for sine-wave input 30) Unity gain voltage follower is also called as Buffer. 31) Toconvert irregular shaped wave forms into square wave form we can use (i) Astable Multi-vibrater (ji) Mono stable multivibrater (iii) Schmitt Trigger (iv) Integrator Iino Ans. : Schmitt Trigger f > 32) The circuit of can be used to convert sine wave into square wave. i) PhaseChanger (ii) Schmitt Trigger i) Oscillator (iv) Regulator (Ine Ans. : Schmitt Trigger Introduction] Q1 What are the drawbacks of RC coupled and direct coupled amy lifiers? Ans. : Drawbacks of RC Coupled Amplifiers: 1) The gain of RC coupled amplifiers decreases in low frequency range and high frequen range.‘7PS Electronic Paper -1 43 Operational Amplifiers 2) _ Very low frequency a.c. signals cannot be amplified. 3) _ D.C. (zero frequency) signals cannot be amplified. These drawbacks can be removed by using direct coupled amplifiers, But these amplifiers have following drawbacks: Drawbacks of Direct (DC) Amplifiers : 1) The output changes with the age/time and change in supply voltage. This effect is observed even in absence of an input signal which leads to an output which is unwanted. This is called as ‘Drift’ 2) _ Even if input is ac, a de component is present in the output. 3) _ Any noise or stray pickup appearing at the input of the amplifier becomes appreciable at the oe due to high gain. These drawbacks can be removed by using differential amplifier. Q2 What are the advantages of Differential am, ‘Ans.: Advantages of Differential (Difference) Amplifier: 1) _ Differential amplifier can be used as a basic building block for operational amplifier to amplify both a.c. as well as d.c. signals. 2) _ Differential amplifier being a directly coupled (d.c) amplifier consisting of two identical transistors, its frequency response is independent of frequency and drift is also minimized. 3) _ It amplifies the difference between two input signals (differential input) and rejects the ‘common mode signal. 4) Insome applications e.g. biomedical instruments, weak signals are to be amplified. The q noise present in such instruments may be larger than the required signal. It is therefore desired to amplify the difference between these signals and reject the common mode signal. The importance of differential amplifier lies in such cases. (Note.: For detailed study of R - C coupled. Directly coupled and Differential amplifiers, refer to TPS Electronics -Std XI). Q3 Explain the working of differential amplifier with the help of circuit sen +Vee Vee Fig. 44: Circuit diagram of a differential amplifier | Working’: In differential amplifier two balanced stages of amplifiers are used to eliminate the _ drawback of drift. Transistors Q, and Q, are identical. Rc, = Rc, and Rp,= Rp,, Reis common “emitter resistance of high value. Differential amplifier can be operated in four modes:TPS Electronic Paper -I 44 Operational Amp ey 1) _ Single ended input-single ended output. 2). Single ended input-double ended output. 3) Double ended input-single ended output. 4) Double ended input-double ended output. Single ended input or output is between any one terminal of transistor and grou Double ended output is taken between two collectors (V,). Single ended input-Single ended output : Assume that V, is applied and V, is grounded. In positive half cycle of V,, Ic, increase, but as Vo = Vce~ Ice, Ve, decreases, Ir, increases, but Ir, decreases and due to Re which ac as constant current source, J,,+ I;,is kept constant. Therefore Ic,decreases and os is in phase with V,. Similarly if V. is applied and V, is grounded, Vc, is in phase with V; and Vc, s out of phase. Vo = Aa (Va) where Aq = Differential mode gain andV, = V,-V2 Therefore, if V, = V,, Vo=[Link] common mode signal is rejected. _amplifier. Ans, : Need for Dual Power oe : The circuit fae of a differential amplifiet (differential amplifier) is given in Fig. 4.3(A). Inusual amplifier, only one power supply (Vec) is used and the values of R, and Rea selected to bias the transistor properly: Common ground terminal is either negative termin for NPN transistor or the positive terminal for PNP transistor. _mTPs Electronic Paper -1 45 Operational Amplifiers Similarly for a differential amplifier assume that only one supply + Vcc is used and negative terminal is common ground. Resistors R,, Ry Ry and Ry are selected to bias the transistors properly. Let a signal source be connected between I/P, and ground. Let the signal source be directly connected to 1/P, and not through a capacitor. Because the differential amplifier has to amplify dc. and low frequency signals also and hence coupling capacitors are not used. When the signal source is connected, the base of Q, ie. 1/P, gets grounded through the signal source. This changes the operating, point of the transistor. As Q, is coupled toQ through emitter resistor R; the operating point of Q, also changes. Therefore the collector voltages of the two transistors change. Thus the output of amplifier changes. a ‘ But when two power supplies are used, the biasing resistors are so selected that the desired forward bias to the two transistors is provided and at the same time the potentials of the bases of two transistors are brought down to the ground potential. Hence when the signal source is connected between I/P, and ground, there is no change in operating conditions, because the base is already at ground potential. Second advantage of dual power supply is that at the output we can obtain positive as well as negative polarities. See tis ves Van Fig. 43(A): Differential Amplifier (B) Dual power supply amplifier. Ans. : Operational Amplifier (Op. Amp.) : Operational amplifier is a high gain d.c. (directly coupled) amplifier which basically consists of differential amplifier. Operational amplifier can be used for addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation, analog to digital conversion etc. : "Characteristics of Ideal Op. Amp: 1) Open loop gainis infinite. »2) Input impedance is infinite. 3) Output impedance is zero. 4) Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is infinite. 5) Inputbias current iszero. 6) Input offset current is zero. 7) Frequency response curve extends from zero (d.c) to infinite frequency . 8) Input offset voltage is zero. 9) Response time is zéro.‘TPS Electronic Paper -I 46 Operational Amplify Q6 Draw schematic symbol of Op-Amp and Pin diagram of DIP 8 pin 741 0) Ans. : Schematic symbol of Op-Amp. Inv. input ‘Noreinv. input (a) Symbol () Pin diagram Fig. 4.4 Q7 State four advantages of Op-Amp over a normal amplifier. in ‘Ans. : Advantages of Op-Amp over a normal ampl 1) Anormal amplifier is used to amplify ac signals only while an op. amp. can be used ty amplify both a.. and d.c. signals. 2) Op. amp. can be used to perform several arithmétic operations like additions subtraction, differentiation, etc. while a normal amplifier cannot be used for such application. 3) Anormal amplifier does not require a dual power supply. But an op. amp. uses a dud - Power supply. This provides a large swing in output signal from + Vsqr to ~ Vsqr. 4) In normal amplifiers, capacitors, transformers etc. are used for coupling In op. amp direct coupling is used. Therefore, it can be fabricated in IC form and_frequenq response is independent of the frequency from 0 to high frequency in MHz, (4 advantages 1x 4 Marks) Q8 Draw the block diagram of Op-Amp. and explain the function of each block. Ans. : Block diagram of Op. Amp. : The differential amplifier is the basic building block operational amplifier. Op-Amp. has two input terminals and one output terminal. ; The first stage in op. amp. is a difference (differential) amplifier with a double ended ‘output (differential output). This amplifier is provided with a constant current source. Thi stage provides large and stable gain, high input impedance and large bandwidth, It reduc’ the noise and provides high CMRR. - The second stage is a differential amplifier. The output of the second differenti amplifiers, is taken as a single ended output i.e. between the collector of any one transistat and the common ground. Due to two stages, large gain and CMRR can be obtained. The third stage is an emitter follower, It has very high input impedance and low outpt! impedance. The gain of this amplifier is almost unity. This stage acts as a buffer between the “ second and fourth stage and thus avoids overloading.‘TPS Electronic Paper - 1 Operational Amplifiers 47 wom i ale Fig. 4.5 : Block diagram of Op-Amp. The next stage is dic. level shifter. D.C. voltage level of the cascaded stages increases due to direct coupling and finally it may be equal to the power supply voltage. Also in absence ~ of any input, the output may not be zero. Therefore d.c. level shifter is necessary to bring the output to zero volt level i.e. to ground potential. In second differential. amplifier, emitter follower and level shifter are called as Intermediate stages. The last stage is called as output stage. This is mostly a push-pull power amplifier. Its output impedance is low and it provides sufficient current to the load without distortion. Ithelps to supply larger output voltage without distortion. Q9 Why the inputs of operational amplifier are called inverting and non-inverting ? ‘Ans, : The differential amplifier is the basic building block of an operational amplifier. In differential amplifier when collector current of one transistor increases, the collector current of second transistor decreases. Hence the outputs of two transistors show opposite changes. But in operational amplifier there are two input terminals and only one output terminal. In operational amplifier the chain of the amplifier stages is so designed that an input signal “applied to one specific terminal of input differential amplifier stage after passing through the chain will invariably establish inverted (180° out of phase) final output with respect to the ‘input signal. This is called as inverting (denoted by -) input terminal. When the input signal is applied to the other input terminal, it will produce a final output which will be in phase (non- inverted) with respect to the input signal. This is called as non-inverting (denoted by +) input terminal. Parameters of Op: ‘Amp Q.10 Explain the following parameters of an operational amplifier: 1) Input bias current 2) Input offset current 3) Input offset voltage 4) CMRR 5) Slew rate 6) Frequency response 7) Open loop gain 8) Closed loop gain 9) Bandwidth 10) Common mode gain’ _11) Input impedance, Ans. :1) Input Bias Current OREN E KO) eT Ideally Op-Amp. draws no current from applied —T,_ input signal But practically it absorbs a small value of D.C. current to bias the transistors in the first differential amplifier stage. Normally because ofa" Vo=0 slight mismatch of the two input transistors, inverting input bias current (Ig) is not equal to the A non-inverting input bias current (Ip+)- Fig. 4.6: Input bias currentsTPS Electronic Paper - 1 48 Therefore ‘Input Bias Current’ is defined as the average of biasing currents of inverting and non-inverting inputs. 2 3) 4) 5) Up + Up Ip = 5. Typically Ig is about 80 nA. Input Offset Current (I,, o Ii) : (Oct. 2006, March 2008, 2010, 2014] The base currents of the input transistors are never equal because of difference in they Current gains. The difference between the biasing currents of inverting and no, inverting inputs is called ‘Input Offset Current’. Tq = M51 — Ip! This is generally specified for zero output voltage and at 25°C temperature. Typically Isis less than 25% of Is and is a measure of mismatch of the input transistors. Input Offset Voltage (V;,) : (March 2003, 08, Oct. 2003, 04, 07, 09, 10; July 2017 When input voltages to an op-amp. are zero, the output must be zero. But there is. small error voltage at the output due to the mismatch in base to emitter voltages of transistors. This is called as ‘output offset voltage’. ME The ‘input offset voltage’ is equal to the difference in Vee values which must be applied to particular input terminal to obtain zero w output voltage Practically it may be few mV. Ey, This is called as offset compensation’. + Fig. 4.7: Input offset voltage Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) : KEMP pele ae) [March 2004, 06, 07, 10, 11, 14, 16; 17, CMRR is defined as the ratio of differential voltage gain to common-mode voltage gain. Ag where A, = Differential voltage gain and Ac= Common-mode voltage gain CMRR in decibels = 20 log CMRR e.g, If CMRR = 1000, CMRR in dB = 20 log 1000 = 60 dB. When a common signal s applied to both inputs of an Op-Amp. ideally output should be zero, But practically Vs is not exactly zero. This is due to the amplification of common mode signal. CMR! indicates the ability to reject the common-mode signal. Ideally CMRR Slew Rate (S,) : is infinite. REE meee OREM MSE a Mee Slew rate is the most important specification affecting a.c. operation. It is defined as t ‘maximum rate at which the output voltage can change. For IC 741 slew rate is 0.5 V/1S-6) 8) es Bieetronia Pensa 49 Operational Amplifiers Input (Slope > $ Overdriven input Fig. 4.8 : Slew Rate If a sharply rising (overdriven) signal is applied at the input, then the output gets delayed, giving rise to a delayed feedback. Hence a distorted output is obtained. Therefore there is a limit on the rate of increase of input voltage. We get slew-rate limiting with a sinusoidal signal. As long as slope of the sine wave is Jess than or equal to Sp, there is no slew-rate limiting. But when slope is greater than Sp, output looks like triangular. More triangular waveform is obtained at higher frequencies. ecient: EEE This is the gain of Op-Amp without feedback For ideal op. amp. open loop gain is infinite. But this gain is unstable and it is affected by changes in temperature and supply voltage and aging of active devices. Typical open-loop voltage gain is 100,000. It is the ratio of Vou/ Vine Closed -loop gain (Ac) PEE As ideal op. amp. has infinite gain, some device must be used to limit and stabilize the gain so that op. amp. can be used in practical circuits. For this purpose a feedback resistor Aq. is connected between output terminal and inverting input terminal of Op. Amp. With application of negative feedback, gain is stabilized but reduced in magnitude. Gain of operational amplifier with feedback is called ‘closed-loop gain’. OL where Ag, = open - loop gain, B = feedback fraction. Typically Ag, may be upto 1000. Frequency Response : Draw frequency response curve of an op-amp. and hence explain the cut-off frequenc and unity gain frequency. CREME Frequency response curve shows how the voltage gain varies as the frequency changes. ‘As shown in the curve, at low frequencies, open-loop gain (without feedback) is very high, In the midband Ao, is 100,000, At point A, open-loop gain is 70.7% of the maximum gain ie. 70,700. The frequency at this point is called “Upper cut - off frequency’ for open-loop (fo,). There is no ‘Lower Cut-off frequency’ for an op. amp. because the stages are directly coupled. (March 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2007; 2009, 2013, 2014)‘TPS Electronic Paper -1 4.10 Operational Amplifig, 9) 10) 1) Changing the frequency or gain by a factor of 10 is expressed by the term ‘per decagy The voltage gain decreases by 20 dB per decade. This is caused by the compensating capacitor on IC chip. Fig, 49 : Frequency Response Curve If we select resistors to get a closed-loop (with feedback) gain of 1000, then the voltage gain decreases to 70,7 % at 1 kHz. This is ‘Upper cut-off frequency for closed-loop’ (fz) at point B. Beyond this frequency the closed-loop response superimposes the open-loop response, The bandwidth increases when midband gain decreases. The frequency at which voltage gain falls to unity ie. one, is called ‘Unity-gain frequency’ (Fyn) The product of gain and upper cut-off frequency is called ‘Gain Bandwidth Produc Bor fo. = Aa. fay, For IC 741 gain-bandwidth product is 1 MHz which is equal to unity-gain frequency. The bandwidth is equal to the upper cut-off frequency. “Bandwidth ; The frequency range from lower cut-off frequency to upper cut-off frequency is called bandwidth of the amplifier. For op. amp. lower cut-off frequency is zero, Therefore, bandwidth is equal to the upper cut-off frequency. Common mode gain 2 ‘ If both inputs are applied simultaneously, common mode input is Vo = Vo Common mode gain is given by Ac= i: Ideally common mode gain should be zero. Input impedance : Input impedance of op. amp. is the impedance looking into its input terminals, Ideally input impedance (Z;) of op-amp. is infinite. Practically it is 2 MQ for IC 741,s Electronic Paper - I 41 Operational Amplifiers PPLICATIONS OF OP. AMP. Gil State the applications of an operational amplifier. [meee ‘ans.: Applications of an Op. Amp :-A) Linear Applications : 1) Non-inverting [Link]. 2) Inverting [Link]. 3) Inverter 4) Buffer i 5) Adder 6) Subtractor. p) Non-linear Applications : (Waveforms of input and output are different) 1) Integrator 2) Differentiator 3) Comparator 4) Schmitt Trigger. Giz A) Explain in brief two applications of IC 741. (Ee) B) Explain the working of non-inverting op-amp. Derive an expression for its gain {(Oct. 2005, 12, 13, 14, March 2009, 18, Ans. : Non-inverting Operational Amplifier : % a Voc Mi RA ts, 1; 2 Ry race) i % Fig. 4.10 : Non-inverting op. amp. The input signal is applied to non inverting input of amplifier and a fraction of the dutput voltage is then sampled and feedback to the inverting input. Op. amp. with non-inverting voltage feedback tends to act like a perfect voltage amplifier with infinite input impedance, zero output impedance and constant voltage gain. The combination of Rr and R; acts as a voltage divider. R Va = Vo'R +R, ‘The difference between the non-inverting and inverting input voltages is called the Ve - __ ‘erro: voltage’. Veror = V =A Where A is open-loop gain. Potential of point B with respect to ground is V,. Vi = Ve=VatvTPS Electronic Paper - 1 442 Operational Amp 1 Butas A> =,= 0 als. [Link]) R :. Closed-loop gain of non-inverting op. amp. = 1+, R Output voltage = V, = V, ( +) The equation shows that the output is in phase with the input signal. Closed-loop depends on input resistance (R)) and feedback resistance (Ry) only and is independent of op loop gain and other parameters of op. amp. The gain of non-inverting op. amp. cannot be less than one. Q.13 A) Draw a circuit diagram of an inverting amplifier using op. amp. Explain concept of virtual ground and hence derive the expression for its output voltay Fig. 4.11 : Inverting Op. Amp. In inverting op. amp. the non-inverting input terminal (+) is grounded and an inp signal is applied to the inverting input terminal (-) through input resistor R,, R; is the feedbad resistor. The output is 180° out of phase with the input. Hence the feedback signal is out d phase with input which causes negative feedback. Let ‘v’ be the potential at point S. If], is the current through Ry, Input current J, = Current through R, is feedback current I, v-V, le ' {As enters the point it can flow to ground through internal resistance of op. amp-™ ‘as op. amp. has infinite input impedance, current cannot enter at input of op. amp. Het ‘current drawn by any input terminal is zero. Hence I, = I;. Actual input to op. amp. is Vero”‘TPS Electronic Paper - | 4.13 Operational Amplifiers SA = Open-toop gain =="? As], = sl, = ly » :, Output voltage = V,=— Closed-loop gain of inverting op. amp. The negative sign indicates that the output signal is 180° out of phase with the input signal. The closed-loop gain depends on values of externally connected input, resistor R (cource resistance) and feedback resistance (Rj) only. It is independent of open loop-gain and "other parameters of op. amp. Q.14 Explain the concept of virtual ‘Ans. : Concept of Virtual Ground : In an inverting op-amp. (Fig. 4.11), the output voltage provides a current through feedback resistor to the inverting input terminal. (1) _Ininverting op. amp. as ideally open-loop gain is infinite, the voltage between two input terminals (Vejor= V) i8 2erO. Ay v = lade ve0 2) As the input impedance is ideally infinite, the current into the op. amp. is zero. “The virtual ground’ is any point (in Fig. 4.11 point S) in a circuit that has zero voltage and draws no current. An ordinary ground has zero voltage and can sink infinite current, But a virtual ground has zero voltage and zero current, _ Qi5 Explain the application of op. amp. as an inverter. Ans. : Up. amp. as Inverter or sign changer : Inverter is an inverting op. amp. In inverting - op. amp. the closed-loop gain ise .Here R= R\=RTPS Electronic Paper -1 414 Operational Amp; = + lit fe, Therefore closed-loop gai Output voltage = - V, ‘Thus the gain of this amplifier is (- 1) and it can be used to change the sign of input signal ie. as an inverter or unity gain inverting amplifier. Fig. 4.12 Q.16 A) Explain how op. amp. is used as a buffer. Draw suitable circuit diagram. (Oct. 2004, 2009, 2014, March 2008, 2012, B) _ Explain with a circuit diagram, the working of a voltage follower usin, state its use. Ans.: )p. Amp. as a Buffer or Unity gain voltage follower: Voltage follower is a non-inverting amplifier. Input signal is applied to non- inverting input terminal, Output is feedback to the inverting input terminal. +R=0 Fig. 4.13 : Op. Amp. as a Buffer Vo The gain of non-inverting op: amp. =v. = 1 o As Ry=0, gain=1 * Vor Therefore output is in phase with the input signal. Use : This circuit can be used for getting high input impedance and very low out impedance. Hence it is useful for isolating any circuit from the load. Therefore volt follower is also called as ‘Buffer’. ~ output voltage. Op. Amp. Adder (Inverting Summing Amplifier) Op. amp. adder is basically an inverting amplifier. Lt the voltages Vi, Vo Vsbe appl at the input terminals through resistors R,, Rand R, respectively. Since the inverting inp terminal is at virtual ground potential, AnsBp TPs Electronic Paper -I 415 Operational Amplifiers All these currents meet at inverting input terminal. Total current I; flows through feedback resistor R, only. L+L+], EY VeVe -Ve "RRR RB + Output voltage = V, =- Ry EE) 1R,=R, =R,=R, Vo = -Ra,+¥, +¥) IR, = : Vv, = -(V,+V, +¥5) Now op. amp is said to be operating as ‘Inverting Summing Amplifier. The output is sum of input voltages but with’a negative sign. The negative sign indicates that output is 180° out of phase with the input. The negative sign can be removed by using an inverter circuit. + Adder can be used for a.c. or d.c. input voltages also. 18 How op. amp. can be used as a subtractor? (Oct. 2001, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015) +Op. Amp. as as subtractor : Because of high input impedance of op. amp, current absorbed by the amplifier is zero, refore iy ip and iy = iy ain Vo The differential mode input is equal to p.d. between A and B. Gain = A = 72 Vane \ AsA>~, Vai Hence points A and B are at same potential, V,= Vu = V. Vig aN RRR plore vay ee ey RAR; R; «Vo = Ri“) IR, = R, Vo = Va-Vy Thus output is difference between two input voltages, The input voltages may be ac or de signals, Eeegps tectonic Paper ky Operational Amplifiers _:p. Amp. as Integrator: Ans: Fig. 4.16 This is an inverting amplifiet, where the feedback is provided through the capacitor Cand the point S is at virtual ground. Now instantaneous voltage across the capacitor is Ve = q/C But q= Jiai, tence Vwi The capacitor is connected between the output terminal and S, which is at virtual ground. For a positive going input voltage V,, the current i will be directed towards the point §, in such a casé polarity of the voltage drop across capacitor will be as shown in Fig. 4-16. ‘As V, is potential of output terminal with respect to ground (i.e. with respect to S), hence W=-Vo : Fiat va : Vv, Similarly as Sis at virtual ground, i= Vidt -1 1 Vy = Staal vat _ Thus output is proportional to the time integral of the input voltage IfR = 1MQ andC=1 pF, RC=1 second, een ole _ Integration in this case, is said to be in ‘Real Time’. IfV, = Vsinat Mosatt “Ac Jvsinatat = =e eos at) +C where C is constant of integration. _ Veos wt args'$ Electronic Paper =I 418 Operational Ami, \ This equation indicates that as frequency increases, output decreases. Henge p frequency signals can pass more easily than high frequency signals. Therefore integray, called as ‘Low Pass Filter’. i Q.20 Explain the working of differentiator circuit using operational amplifi expression for output voltage. (ERE eee Uae ee (CHR oP on applied to inverting input tenn Ans. : Op. Amp. as a Differentiator : Input voltage is through C. The point S is at virtual ground. Therefore all applied input voltages appear acy, the capacitor. IFV = Instantaneous voltage across the capacitor, then R V,_=q/C Hence q=C.V, Thus instantaneous current i, in the capacitor c ie cae CAN > neswcdts = dt 4 Now as the input impedance of the op. amp. is “i \ very large, the current i, through the capacitor will be equal to the: current i, flowing through the resistor. Fig 4.17: Op. Amp. as Differentiay Fe ON, Buti, = AV, =Ne R I or Wades oR dv, | Vy = -R-CSE i Thus the output is proportional to the differential of input voltage. If R = 1 MQ axl C=1pF, RC=1 second oa -dV, | ~ at | If V,=V sin at, V, =- VoRC cos wt = ~V2nf. RC. cos at | This equation shows that as frequency increases, output voltage increases. The differentiator is called as “High Pass Filter’. Disadvantage - A differentiator has a tendency to amplify noise, drift or any unwanted disturbances present in the input signal. For an input ramp signal, if small noise added in the input, the output waveform changes as shown in. Fig. 4.18.Paper 1 prosesth 419 Opérational Amplifiers Pure ramp input Fig. 4.18 : Op. Amp, differentiator waveforms (Q.21 Explain different types of voltage comparators using Op-Amp. GOREN ‘Ans. : Voltage comparator using Op. Amp: Maximum output voltage swing is normally 2 V Jess than (Vs) applied supply voltage. This is called ‘Saturation Voltage’ Vsar- . £Vear = Vet 2V ‘A comparator is a circuit with two input voltages (inverting and non-inverting) and one output voltage. When the non-inverting voltage is larger than inverting voltage, the comparator produces a high: output voltage. When the noninverting input is less than inverting input, the output is low. ‘Types of comparators : : a (Es +V Vv, vi — Vv, V, . AL -¥ ae (a) Non-inverting comparator (b) Inverting comparator Vv +V v, {I x ‘ vy Vo - rae . ey + Vel Nejc () Non zero reference (d) Non-zero reference non-inverting comparator inverting comparator Fig, 4.19: Comparators ‘TPS Electronic Paper -1 4.20 a) b) ° d) Square wave can be obtained at the output. Therefore it is called as ‘sine to square wave y 0 converter’. “Veer _Q.22 A) Draw basic circuit for a Schmitt trigger using op. amp. B) Ans. Operational Ampliig Non-inverting comparator - In this type inverting input is grounded. When V, . 9 Vo = +Vsar When Vj < 0, V, =~ Vsqr. When Vj = Thus the magnitude of V; is compared with ground. Inverting comparator- In this type, when V; > 0, V, =~ Vsar When V, <0, V, = + Vear When V,=0, Vy =0 10 reference comparators’ or ‘zero-crossing detectors, These two types are called a Non-zero reference (Non-inverting) comparator: In this type, when V, > Vig, Vo= +Vsar When V, < Vay, Vo=- Vsar and When Vj = Vy, Vo = 0. n Non-zero reference (Inverting) comparator- In this type, when V,>Vyy Vo = -Vsar- When V, < Vy Vo=+ Vsar and when Vj= Vii, Vo =0 In type (a) if sine wave input is- given, *Vsar Fig. 4.20 : Sine to square wave converter (Non-inverting comparator) ‘and explain the terms; (a) UTP, (b) LTP, (c) Hysteresis. : Schmitt Trigger using Op. Amp : The trip point (threshold. or reference) of a comparator is the value of input voltage at which the output switches state. If the input to a comparator contains noise, the output may be eratic. When V,, is near a trip point. With a zero- crossing detector, the output is high when V,,, is greater than trip point (ie. positive) and low when V,, is negative. If the input contains a noise voltage with a peak of 1 mV or more then "the comparator will detect the zero crossings produced by noise, We can avoid noise triggering by using a Schmitt Trigger. In this circuit, because of the voltage divider there is positive voltage feedback. When the output voltage is positively saturated, a positive voltage is feedback to the non-inverting input. This positive input holds the output in the high state. When the output voltage is negatively saturated, a negative voltage is fedback to the non-inverting input, holding the output in Low state. The feedback fraction is B= SePapers Operational Amplifiers qyptiectronle When the output is Pos saturated, the reference voltage applied to the non- cetng input i8 Vigo ™ + Vaqr® UTP, When the output is negatively saturated, the reference inv’ : : tage => BVgar= LTP Here UTP = Upper Trip Point and LTP = Lower Trip Point. The output will remain in a given state until the input exceeds the refer t state, For ‘example ; if the output is po jtively saturated, the reference voltage voltage Vi, must be increased to slightly more than + BVsar- ence voltage for that is + Vsat- she input Voc v. ¥ Mpc Vout Wer Bveat tie ne” (a) Circuit diagram (b) Transfer characteristics Fig. 4.21 : Schmitt Trigger Then the error voltage reverses and the output voltage changes to the low state a8 shown in Fig, 4.21. Once the output is in the negative state, it will remain there indefinitely intl the input voltage becomes more negative than -BVsar. Then output switches from negative to positive. The difference betwéen UTP and LTP is called ‘Hysteresis’. It prevents noise from causing false triggering. 23 Slate the applications of op. amp. used as a comparator. ‘Ans. :Applications of comparator- 1). As Schmitt Trigger, 2) As Monostable multivibrator. 3) AsBistable multivibrator. 4) As Astable multivibrator. 5) _ Sine to square wave converter. Solved Problems D For an inverting adder with feedback resistance 4.7 kM and input resistance 1 kQ, ifinputs are 2 V, 5 V, 1 V find the output voltage. 0 m1) Ans. : Output voltage = -47(-2) Vo = +94voltsTPS Electronic Paper I 42 Operational Ampyig | iy | 2) Inan OP AMP inverting adder V; = 0.2 volt, V; = 0.1 volt, V; = 04 volt, R, =, >! R, =2KQ, R,=4kQ. Find the output voltage if feedback resistance is 20 kQ. iy Ans. : For an inverting op. amp. adder, V, Vs m= -nGrzeR) Og) O20 pa 0 04 F 20x10 (asap Te) i = -20(0.2+0.05 + 0.1) = -20(0.35) = -7V al Mary 3) Draw a circuit diagram for op. amp. as a two input inverting adder. If Vi =~ 2 3p and V, = - 30 mV, find the output voltage for Ry = Ri = R- Ans.: (Mag Here R,=R, =R, . Vo=- (Vi + Va) =~ (20 +30) =50 mV Fig. 4.22: Op. Amp. as a two input inverting adder In Op. Amp. inverting adder if Ry = 1 kQ, R, = 2 kQ, Ry =3 kQ and Ry = 6 kQ, calculay’ a output voltage for Vi= V2= V3=03 V Ans. :For Op. Amp. inverting adder 1 Me Ve | w= RGR (Ma 03 03 03 | i ~6x10 [apt aaa . (Matt -6x10/, 03 03) Ae (0a+3+3) | (Ma = -6(0.55)=-33V