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Chapter 1 Driving Questions
Process of Science
Dr. Wilson • How is the scientific method used to test hypotheses?
• What factors influences the strength of the
conclusions of scientific studies?
• What factors influences whether the results of any
given study are applicable to a particular population of
humans?
• How can you evaluate the evidence in media reports
of scientific studies?
• How does the scientific process help us make
important decisions about human health?
Biology 1101: Fundamentals of Biology
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Medical Myth or Fact? Medical Myth or Fact?
• Don’t sit to close to the TV. It will ruin your eyes. • Going out in the cold with wet hair will make you sick.
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Medical Myth or Fact? Medical Myth or Fact?
• You should wait an hour after eating before you go • Vaccines cause autism.
swimming.
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Medical Myth or Fact? Medical Myth or Fact?
• The COVID Vaccine causes you to become magnetic. • The COVID Vaccine can affect your ability to have
children.
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Medical Myth or Fact? Where do the myths come from?
• Cell phones cause cancer.
• Anecdotal evidence:
• Derived from personal observation and experience
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What About Medical Information In the
News?
STUDY LINKS COFFEE USE TO
PANCREAS CANCER
By HAROLD M. SCHMECK Jr.
Published: March 12, 1981
A statistical link between the drinking of coffee and
cancer of the pancreas, the fourth most common cause
of cancer deaths among Americans, was reported
yesterday by scientists of the Harvard School of Public
Health. The discovery was unexpected, and its
significance is not yet clear.
''If it reflects a causal relation between coffee drinking
and pancreatic cancer,'' the report said, ''coffee use
might account for a substantial proportion of the cases
of this disease in the United States…
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Coffee and Cancer Risk: Java Junkies Less Likely to Get
More than 4 cups of coffee a day linked to higher
Tumors, Study Says mortality rate, particularly in under-55s: study.
By David W Freeman Topics, 2010 A study of more than 40,000 men and women showed an association between
drinking 28 or more cups of coffee per week and a higher risk of death from any
cause. But drinking a lesser amount of coffee appears to be safe, scientists said.
Evidence is brewing that coffee can prevent cancer.
By Tracy Miller / NEW YORK DAILY NEWS
The latest study shows that java junkies are significantly less
likely to develop head and neck cancer - and the more coffee Published: Thursday, August 15, 2013, 1:15 PM
consumed, the lower the risk. Updated: Thursday, August 15, 2013, 1:15 PM
Those who drank four or more cups of coffee a day were a
whopping 39 percent less likely to develop tumors, according
to the American Association for Cancer Research, which
publishes Cancer….
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Non-Scientific Reasons for Discrepancies Examples - Miscommunication
• Misrepresentation (Disinformation) • Athletes currently training for the Olympics taking
Vitamin X lost on average 10 lbs.
• Miscommunication (Misinformation)
• Lack of Understanding of Science and Data • Vitamin X helps people loss weight.
• Compound Z helps reduce the risk of breast cancer.
• Compound Z reduces the risk of cancer.
• Compound Z cures breast cancer.
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Examples - Lack of Understanding of Scientific Studies Provide Scientific
Science and Data Evidence
• Scientific evidence:
• Derived from systematic observation and
experimentation
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Limitations - Scientific Reasons for Scientific Conclusions Are Not Set In
Discrepancies Stone
• Use the best evidence at any one time
• Conclusions are commonly modified in the future
• Scientists ask different questions
• Improved technology
• Better evidence
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So… What is Science How Does Science Work?
• Science is the process of using observations &
• Cell phone use and cancer
experiments to draw evidence-based conclusions
• Science is NOT just a body of established facts
• It is a way of knowing!
• Verb not a noun
• It is a never-ending process
• Science is a method of seeking answers to questions on
the basis of observation and experimentation
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Scientific Method Scientific Process - Observation
1. Observe
1. Observe • Using own experience (anecdotal evidence)
2. Hypothesize • Often unreliable, untested
3. Experiment • Use observation to formulate a question
4. Analyze data
5. Conclude • Observation - A friend who uses a cell phone all
the time has developed brain cancer
• Leads to question
“Do cell phones cause cancer?”
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Scientific Process – Form a Hypothesis Scientific Process – Form a Hypothesis
2. Hypothesize 2. Hypothesize
• Before developing a • A hypothesis is NOT a question
hypothesis, scientist study • A tentative explanation for a scientific observation
current knowledge on the or question that is testable and falsifiable
topic
• Testable
• Read relevant studies that
have already been conducted • Can be supported or rejected by experiments
and/or observational studies
• Scientific journals are peer-
reviewed • Falsifiable
• Articles reviewed by • Can be ruled out by data that show the hypothesis
experts before publication does not explain the observation
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Falsifiable? A Hypothesis Cannot Be Proven True
• Karl Popper, a 20th century philosopher, once put
Once and For All
forward the hypothesis, “All swans are white”. If I
were to conduct a study based on this hypothesis, I • Data can support a hypothesis
could record the color of a thousand swans, and • A hypothesis can be accepted until further data or
come to the conclusion that all swans must be white. testing shows otherwise
Yet, if I were to come across just one black swan, it • It is impossible to test if a hypothesis is true in
would immediately disprove my theory, and force me every possible situation
to accept my null hypothesis.
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Scientific Process – Form a Hypothesis NOT a scientific hypothesis
• Question - “Do cell phones cause cancer?” • Statements of opinion
• Develop hypothesis • Hypotheses that use supernatural or mystical
explanations
“Exposure to cell phone radiation increases the • Anything that cannot be tested or refuted empirically
incidence of cancer.” • “Pseudoscience”
• It is a statement
• It explains your observation
• It is testable
• It is falsifiable
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Scientific Process - Experimentation Scientific Process - Experimentation
3. Experiment • Experimental groups
• Group that experiences the experimental
• An experiment is a carefully designed test
intervention or manipulation
• Results should either support or rule out a • Cell phone exposure
hypothesis
• Control groups
• Hypothesis - “Exposure to cell phone radiation • Group that experiences NO experimental
increases the incidence of cancer.” intervention or manipulation
• Develop an experiment to test hypothesis • No cell phone exposure
Measure the effects of cell phone radiation on
rats and mice
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Independent Variable Control Group and Placebos
• Variable or factor being deliberately changed in the
experimental group • The control group often receives a
• It is being manipulated by the scientist placebo
• The experimental group experiences the independent • Fake treatment given to control
variable group to mimic the experience
of the experimental group
• Cell phone radiation exposure • Placebo effect
• Control group display a
measurable response to a
placebo because they think they
are receiving a “real” treatment
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Dependent Variable Control Variable
• A control variable is a variable not changed throughout
• Measured result of an experiment an experiment
• Analyzed in both control & experimental groups • Its unchanging state allows the relationship between
• May or may not be affected by the independent the other variables being tested to be better
variable understood
• Same strain of rats or mice
• Same food
• Same housing
• Same age
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Variables Scientific Process – Analyze the Data
4. Analyze
• Analysis of data allows the investigator to draw
a conclusion on whether the hypothesis was
rejected or supported.
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Statistical Significance Scientific Process – Draw a
• Measure (mathematical) of confidence that the Conclusion
results are “real” & not due to random chance
• Scientist look for more than 95% confidence that data 5. Conclude
is not due to random chance in order to consider it • Does the data support or reject your hypothesis,
statistically significant and is it statistically significant?
“Cell phone radiation increases the incidence of
certain cancers in male rats, but not in female
rats”
• Hypothesis was supported
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How Strong is the Support of This How to Strengthen Our Confidence
Hypothesis
• Should we be confident in the data and conclusion? • Repetition
• More repetition of
• What other factors may have influenced results?
an experiment by
• Is this relevant to human health? different scientists
means more
confidence in the
conclusions drawn
by them
• Can reveal
variability
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How to Strengthen Our Confidence Publish Results
• Sample size: • Results are published in peer-reviewed journals
Number of • Articles are reviewed by experts before publication
experimental • To insure accuracy
subjects in the
experiment
• Larger the sample
size more likely to
be statistically
significant
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Scientific Process – Does Not End Scientific Theory
There • Hypothesis that continues to be supported after
many years of rigorous testing
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What if Topic Cannot Be Studied Finding Patterns - Epidemiology
Scientifically Through Controlled
• Epidemiology: study of patterns
Experiments? of diseases in population,
including risk factors
• Movement of the stars
• Usually involves questionnaires
• Nature of prehistoric life
• Disease • Can collect data for many years
• Effects of Toxins and have a large number of
participants
• Find patterns in science • Example: There a relationship
between wireless phone use and
• Making careful observations of phenomena that the incidences of brain cancer
exist in nature to generate data
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Correlations Finding Patterns - Epidemiology
• Correlation:
consistent
• Exercise caution when evaluating
relationship
epidemiology results
between two
variables • Small sample sizes
• Does NOT prove • Hard to control for complexity
that one variable of a disease
causes the other • Cannot control all variables
• Suggests evidence • Specific population of the
for additional study may not be
research representative of the general
population
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Epidemiological Studies Suggest An Correlation can Invoke Questions
Increased Risk of Schizophrenia …
• Correlation can lead to a
• Family history of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorder controlled experimental study
• Exposure to viruses, toxins, medications or malnutrition while
in the womb • Randomized clinical trial: A
• Taking mind-altering (psychoactive or psychotropic) drugs
controlled medical experiment
during teen years and young adulthood in which subjects are randomly
• Older age of the father chosen to receive either
• Maternal stress during pregnancy experimental treatment or a
• Living in the city, living in the northern hemisphere, or born standard treatment
during winter months • Difficult to keep participants
• hundreds more…. • Ethical considerations
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Randomized Clinical Trials Factors/Variables that Can Affect
the Outcome of a Study
• “Blind Study” – participants do not know what
treatment they are given • Ethnicity
• “Double-Blind Study” – both investigator and • Sex
participants does not know what treatment the
participants are given • Age
• Height • Health
• Genetic predisposition • Exercise
• Weight • Other medications
• Diet • Environment
• Smoking/alcohol/substance abuse
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How We Learn About Science How We Learn About Science
• Scientists • Public
• Learn through peer-reviewed publication • Learn through brief media reports
• Not always completely accurate
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So What Can The Public Do?
• Become more knowledgeable about how science is
done
• Pay attention to the details given and those that are
not
Review What You
• Thoughtfully consider which studies deserve to
influence your behavior
Learned
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The scientific process from beginning Scientists solely rely on anecdotal
to end can be outlined as: evidence to test hypotheses.
A. hypothesize, test, analyze, and conclude. A. True
B. hypothesize, conclude, analyze, and test. B. False
C. observe, test, question, analyze, and
conclude.
D. observe, hypothesize, test, analyze, and
conclude.
E. observe, test, hypothesize, analyze, and
conclude.
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How can two different studies investigating the
Which statement is a falsifiable, scientific
cell phone use and cancer come to a different
hypothesis?
conclusions?
A. A minute to a human feels like an hour to a fly. [Link] may have had different sample sizes.
B. Candy corn causes stomach ulcers. [Link] may have used different types of participants
C. Kittens are more fun than puppies. (e.g., participants of different ages or race)
D. Hauntings occur when someone from a parallel [Link] may have used different amounts of radiation.
universe punches through the thin veil separating his [Link] of the above
or her universe from ours.
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Sue observed that her plants grew taller when Sue observed that her plants grew taller when
she added PEP fertilizer to their water. She she added PEP fertilizer to their water. She
thought to herself, “PEP fertilizer is causing my thought to herself, “PEP fertilizer is causing my
plants to grow taller!” To test this, Sue bought 20 plants to grow taller!” To test this, Sue bought 20
new plants. She gave PEP-infused water to half of new plants. She gave PEP-infused water to half of
the plants and regular water to the other half. the plants and regular water to the other half.
After two months, she calculated the mean After two months, she calculated the mean
height for each group of plants. height for each group of plants.
What is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable?
A. fertilizer amount A. fertilizer amount
B. plant height B. plant height
C. the new group of 20 plants C. the new group of 20 plants
D. water amount D. water amount
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Can an epidemiologist who finds a correlation
When interpreting experimental results, scientists: between the use of tanning beds and melanoma
in college-age women conclude that tanning beds
cause skin cancer?
A. compare values and if one value is larger than
another, they conclude that a significant A. yes, as long as the correlation was significant.
difference exists.
B. yes, but only for college—age women
B. consider their hypothesis proven if results are in
line with their predictions. C. no; correlation is not proof of causation
C. run statistical analyses to determine if results are D. yes, but only melanoma skin cancer, not other
“real” or due to chance. forms of skin cancer
D. run statistical analyses to determine if results are E. no; the study would have to be done with a
“real” or due to chance. wider range of participants (males and females
of different ages) before it can be concluded that
tanning beds cause melanoma
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In which of the following would you
Which of these is likely to be a major weakness in have the most confidence?
the design of an experiment?
A. a randomized clinical trial with 15,000 subjects
A. A sample size that is large B. a randomized clinical trial with 5,000 subjects
B. A samples size that is small C. an epidemiological study with 15,000 subjects
C. Having both an independent and dependent D. an endorsement of a product by a movie star
variable E. a report on a study presented by a
D. Having subjects randomly assigned to control news organization
and experimental groups
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Imagine this scenario: A newspaper headline reads
“GMO corn gives you cancer!” The subsequent article
discusses a study, funded by the Organic Corn
Growers of America, that quantified cancer incidence
in sea stars that were fed nothing but genetically
modified corn.
Which of these might be a problem with
this news report and study?
A. Conflict of interest in researchers
B. Hyped (sensationalized) headline
C. Lack of control group
D. Model system not closely related to humans
E. All of these
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