Week 1- The Nervous System

1. Define NeuroLaw
NeuroLaw is the legal aspect that discoveries within neuroscience have on the legal
profession. It is also the attempt to understand why someone did something on a
biological level. Neurologically speaking, someone may act in a certain way because of a
multitude of neurological factors such as an excess or lack of neurotransmitters.

2. Define the terms brain, nervous system, and ganglia, and state the basic things that all
brains do.
-Brain- within the CNS, an organ or mass of nervous tissue (fusion of ganglia) (jellyfish,
leeches, etc.) that coordinates and adapts all behavior, receives, processes, and signals all
motor and sensory information
-Nervous System- all neural tissue, the overall name for the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves. It contains both CNS and PNS.
-Ganglia- a cluster of nerve cells/tissue, in some animals a large group of ganglions might
constitute an organ that performs brain like functions

3. Differentiating between the central and peripheral nervous systems

-CNS contains the brain and spinal cord

-PNS contains somatic (sensation), autonomic (homeostasis), and enteric (digestive)
nervous systems

4. Defining the orientation terminology used to describe the nervous system: anterior,
posterior, medial, lateral, dorsal, ventral, rostral, caudal.
-Anterior- front

-Posterior- back

-Medial- in
 -Lateral- out

-Dorsal- Top

-Ventral- bottom

-Rostral- towards the head

-Caudal- towards the tail

5. Differentiate between grey and white matter.

-Grey matter is all cell bodies, while white matter is all axons.

6. Define the following terms: cytoarchitecture, ganglion/nucleus, afferent, efferent, local

neuron/interneuron, projection neuron.

-Cytoarchitecture- is the positioning of neurons within the CNS

-Ganglions are a bundle of nerves in the PNS, while nuclei are in the CNS

-Afferent- inputs received by a neuron

-Efferent- outputs of a neuron

-Local neurons do not have efferent signals. Interneurons have both afferent and efferent
signals and transmit those signals within the system they are in. Projection neurons have
both afferent and efferent signals and transmit those signals outside of the system they are
in.

7. Differentiate between tracts and nerves. -Tracts- axon pathways within the CNS

-Nerves- axon pathways within the PNS

8. Describe how the basic classification scheme for the brain is derived from brain
development, and name both the simplest scheme as present in embryos, and the more
developed scheme used for mature brains.

-The brain starts as a neural tube, which forms three distinct vesicles called the
Prosencephalon (forebrain), Mesencephalon (midbrain), and Rhombencephalon

(hindbrain). Later the Prosencephalon develops into the Telencephalon, the

Diencephalon, and the optic vesicles. The Rhombencephalon develops into the
 Metencephalon and the Myelencephalon where the Metencephalon develops into the
cerebellum.

9. State what forms the extent of the brainstem

The brainstem connects the brain and the spinal cord. It contains the midbrain, which is
formed from the Mesencephalon.

10. Describe the three things that are meant by the terms “higher” and “lower.”

-Anatomical position- Dorsal/ ventral (cerebellum vs. spinal cord)

-Evolutionary- Newer/ older (brainstem vs. cortex)

-Cognitive functions- complexity of process (thinking vs. breathing)

11. Describe the basic organization and function of the spinal cord including the Bell-
Megendie law. Also, state the function of the spinal and cranial nerves, and define the
term dermatome.
-The posterior root of the spinal column contains the sensory neuron; this is separated
from the motor neuron because that exits via the anterior root. Spinal nerves transmit
information away from the spinal cord, while cranial nerves carry information to the head
and neck. Dermatomes are areas of your body that are associated with certain vertebrae
and damage to the spinal column at that vertebrae could lead to a loss of sensation or
motor control for that area.
12. Name the two components of the autonomic nervous system, the basic function of each,
and the differences in their anatomical organization.

-Sympathetic- Fight or Flight, using or preparing to use energy

-Parasympathetic- Rest and Digest, conserving energy,

- Both innervate mostly all of the same organs, but in opposing fashions. The sympathetic
nervous system may innervate the heart to increase blood flow to the rest of the body,
expending energy, but the parasympathetic nervous system may later innervate the heart
to slow down heart rate and conserve energy.

-Sympathetic neurons come out from the thoracic part of the spinal cord and innervate in
chain ganglia, while parasympathetic neurons come out from the cranial or sacral part of
the spinal cord and innervate near or on an organ wall.

13. Describe the basic organization of the enteric nervous system, define the microbiome, and
describe how the microbiome might impact brain function.
The enteric nervous system is innervated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems but can act independently of both of them. It surrounds the digestive
system with a plexus, which can be described as a net. The plexus contains neurons that
will act as sensory and motor neurons.
The microbiome is all bacteria within the digestive system. It is a symbiotic bond because
we feed the bacteria in our gut and the bacteria help us digest food.
The microbiome can impact brain function by increasing neurotransmitters (Serotonin,
GABA, Norepinephrine, Dopamine), it can influence the immune system, and it can
impact the activity of the vagus nerve.

14. Name the three layers of the meninges in order from outer to inner layers.

-Dura Matter- outer layer, tough

- Arachnoid Layer- Middle layer, thin, web-like

 -Pia Layer- inner layer, soft, clingy, clear, keeps blood vessels in place (between the Pia
and the brain is the CSF)

15. State the general functions of the ventricular system.

The ventricular system circulates cerebral spinal fluid around the CNS. The CSF
circulates in the following order: Lateral ventricle, third ventricle, fourth ventricle,
subarachnoid space. CSF helps the brain float, protects the brain from the skull and
resulting TBIs, and removes waste from the CNS.

16. State the general function of the following hindbrain structures: medulla, cerebellum,
reticular formation.

-Medulla- heart rate, respiration, digestion

-Cerebellum- complex movements or timed movements (speech and walking)

-Reticular Formation- controls states of the brain through neurotransmitters (sleep/
awake)

17. Name the two structures of the diencephalon and describe the basic functions of each.
-Hypothalamus- controls hormone release by the pituitary gland, controls motived
behaviors that are needed for survival

-Thalamus- sends sensory information to the cortex, regulates information that is sent to
the cortex

18. Name the two principal structures of the telencephalon and state the differences between
the neocortex and allocortex.

-Basal ganglia- controls movement

-Cerebral cortex- contains the neocortex (six cell layers, newer, and only in mammals)
and allocortex (three to four cell layers, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, olfactory system,
older, and is a part of the limbic system)

19. Name three key structures of the limbic system and state their basic functions.

-Hippocampus facilitates learning

-The amygdala controls emotions, especially ones needed for survival such as anger and
fear

-Cingulate cortex controls emotions and value coding

20. Define the basic structural elements of the neocortex: hemispheres, lobes, gyri, and sulci.
 The Neocortex contains the right and left hemispheres which can be divided into the

Frontal lobe for motor and thought functions, the Parietal lobe for tactile sensation, the
Temporal lobe for sight, sound, and taste sensations, and the Occipital lobe for more
visual functions. The folds of the brain are called gyri for the bumps and sulci for the
grooves.

21. Describe how the Brodmann maps of the neocortex were created.
The Neocortex contains six distinct layers of cells. Broadman examined the cell layers in
different brain areas. He discovered 43 areas where the layers are of different sizes.

22. State how the frontal lobe differs in humans compared to other mammals.
The frontal lobe in humans is much larger relative to the size of the brain compared to
other animals.
Week 2- Sensation
1. Provide an answer and an explanation to the question: “If a tree falls in the forest and
there is no one around, does it make a sound?”
It does not make a sound because the sound is the consequence of the displacement of
air molecules by force and is in turn converted into a stimulus by the nervous system.
Without a nervous system to interpret these ripples as sound, no sound would be
made. Humans are unable to detect Earth’s magnetic fields like many other animals,
so the stimulus is not processed by the nervous system and therefore does not exist to
a human. Nerves can be stimulated to create that stimulus.
2. State the three initial steps of sensation and name the general cell type that carries
these out.
-Reception- specialized receptors (the detection of the stimulus)

-Transduction-receptors (convert into AP/chemical response)

-Coding- receptors (distinguishing the stimulus between previous sensations)

3. Define adequate stimulus and describe the relationship between receptors and
stimulus modality including the concept of Umwelt.
An adequate stimulus is the minimum threshold that is needed for a sensory receptor
to respond. Modality is the qualities associated with the stimulus such as color, shape,
size, smell, etc. Certain receptors detect certain stimuli such as touch, sight, and
hearing. Umwelt means that every living thing has a different perception of the world
because they can perceive the world in a unique way due to sensory capabilities.

4. Define receptive field and describe the relationship between receptive field size and
resolution.
-Receptive fields are the area where a stimulus can touch the body, and a certain
receptor will activate. They are responsible for helping to determine whether
someone is being touched on the radial or uvular side of their forearm. Some
receptive fields are large, and larger fields have lower resolution. Smaller receptive
 fields have better resolutions. Fingers have smaller receptive fields and have better
resolution.
5. Define generator potential and describe the differences between phasic and tonic
responses both physiologically and in terms of their sensory function.
-Generator potentials are graded potentials that are made by a stimulus that may later
be made into action potentials. The intensity of the stimulus may increase/decrease
the size of the graded potential.

-Phasic- APs are only created when a new stimulus is created or lost (the presence of
clothing)

-Tonic- APs are maintained if the stimulus is present (the presence of a sharp
pressure)

6. Describe how stimulus intensity is coded, including definitions of range

fractionation and adaptation.
Intensity is coded by both frequency and threshold (certain receptors will respond to
different intensities and which neuron responds helps the brain determine the
intensity).

Range Fractionation is a combination of all neurons responding at a certain threshold.

 Adaptation is the filtration of sensed stimulus within the brain even though a receptor
is active (clothing).

7. Name the three body senses.

Hapsis- touch and pressure

Nociception- pain, temperature, and itch

Proprioception- location of body part and movement

8. Name the primary receptors for hapsis/touch (mechanoreceptors) and their adaptation
properties. Discuss how these properties are related to the capacity for “reading”
braille.
Meissner’s corpuscle- rapid, senses small sharp borders such as the dots in Braille

Pacinian corpuscle- rapid, senses large borders such as the end of a page

Ruffini corpuscle- slow, senses large vague borders such as the end of a page

Merkle’s receptor- slow, senses small sharp borders and the change of stimulus such
as the presence or absence of dots

9. Describe the basic mode of transduction of mechanoreceptors and

how encapsulations influence transduction.
Transduction is the stretching of the cell walls to allow for the influx of sodium ions
to create a generated potential. Pacinian corpuscles allow for the adaptation of cells to
allow for a phasic response (fast adapting) as opposed to a tonic response (slow
adapting).
10. Discriminate between the four basic somatosensory fiber (axon) types, and how these
different axon types contribute to various aspects of sensation.
AA- largest with most myelin therefore fastest (80-120 m/s), proprioception

AB- second largest, second fastest (35-75 m/s), mechanoreception

AD- second smallest, but smallest with myelin (5-30 m/s), pain, and temperature

C- smallest, no myelin (0.5-2 m/s), pain, temperature, and itch

11. Trace the somatosensory pathway to its first synaptic connection, and define dorsal
columns, gracile nucleus, and cuneate nucleus.
Primary afferents> dermatomes> dorsal columns> dorsal collum nuclei

Dorsal columns- tract where neuron signals are sent to the brain via primary afferent
nuclei.

Gracile nucleus- (medial) upper body

Cuneate nucleus- (lateral) lower body

12. Relate the disorder shingles to dermatomes.
Shingles is a virus that descends from chicken pox. The virus re-emerges from the
dermatome to travel across nerves toward the skin to infect the skin with a painful
rash that creates sensitivity in that area.
13. Trace the somatosensory pathway to its second synaptic connection and define the
medial lemniscus and ventral posterior nucleus.
Nerve projections cross through the medulla, travel through the medial lemniscus
(pathway from the medulla to thalamus) to the thalamus, then the ventral posterior
nucleus (a part of the thalamus) directs the signal to the primary somatosensory
cortex.
14. State the function and basic pathway of the trigeminal pathway.
Trigeminal pathway- transmits the somatic information of the face to the brain.

Trigeminal nucleus (metencephalon)> VPN> primary somatosensory cortex

15. Describe the two major organizational principles of the primary somatosensory
cortex.
Four distinct subregions- (Broadman areas) are divided by what sensory information
they process.
 Topographic mapping- map of the body across the cortex (what region responds to
what part of the body)

16. Describe how the brain compensates for change based on competition by describing
the primate experiment in which a digit was amputated, and the experiment where a
manual skill was acquired.
There is competition for the cortical space by parts of the body. When the middle
finger of a monkey was amputated, there was significant shrinkage of the cortex that
directed its nervous function. In response, the pointer and ring finger cortexes grew to
fill that space that was left by the middle finger. This can be accounted for by the
significant increase in work these fingers need to do to compensate for the middle
finger and the competition they go through for cortex space.
17. Define phantom limbs and describe how cortical representations change following the
loss of a limb.
Phantom limbs are sensations of limbs that have been amputated. These sensations
include pain, warmth, touch, and wetness. The brain will reorganize to give cortical
space to the surrounding parts of the brain that respond to different body parts.
18. Describe the experiment measuring receptive fields and projection fields, and state
how the results of this experiment provide evidence for a model of phantom limbs.
During brain surgery, researchers electrically stimulated the brain to determine the
receptive field (the area where the neuron responds) and projection field (what is
perceived by the stimulation of the neuron). They stimulated the receptive field for
the stump of the leg and the projection field was determined to be the foot. This
supports the theory because it was determined that competition for the cortical space
of the amputated leg occurred, and the stump took over cortical space that belonged
to the foot.
19. Describe how to “trick the phantom.”
To “trick the phantom” researchers used a mirror to give the patient the appearance of
having both limbs. This can also be done with prosthesis. “Tricking the phantom” is
overriding the somatic system with the visual system to decrease or stop phantom
limb sensations.
Week 3- Pain
1. Define pain and describe the functions of pain.
Damaged tissue sends a signal to the brain that is interpreted as unpleasant. Its
functions include signaling tissue damage to prevent more damage and to help create
an environment for healing (by being inactive).

2. Describe the differences between fast (first) and slow (second) pain, including the
types of nociceptors contributing to each.
Fast pain- sharp, localized pain (paper cut), occurs first, A-delta fibers (small,
myelinated fibers)

Slow pain- dull, aching/burning, poorly localized (headache), occurs second and
persists, C fibers (small, unmyelinated fibers)

3. Differentiate between nociceptive and neuropathic pain.

Nociceptive pain receptor-stimulated pain

Neuropathic pain- pain created by damaged nerves.

4. State the three dimensions of pain, and how pain is assessed in a clinical setting.
Sensory-discriminative- where is it, and how does it feel (i.e., burning, aching, dull)

Affective motivation- the emotional consequences of pain

Cognitive-evaluative- the subjective perceived severity of the pain

The McGill Pain Scale is one of the oldest pain scales used. It considers all the above
aspects of pain. A common pain scale is the comparative pain scale. It uses a scale of
0-10 and is assessed based on how pain impacts a patient’s life.

5. List the three kinds of nociceptors.

 Mechanical- skin damage

Thermal- damage due to temperature

Polymodal- respond to both.

6. Outline transduction mechanisms using the following examples: stepping on a sharp

object, being stung by a bee, and painful heat.
A person steps on a sharp object. Due to the skin damage chemicals are released such
as bradykinin and potassium. These chemicals depolarize the C fibers, which create
slow pain information.

A person is stung by a bee and the bee’s toxin is injected into the skin. Mast cells are
sent to the sight for the injection, releasing histamine. Due to the skin damage
chemicals are released such as bradykinin, potassium, and histamine. These
chemicals depolarize the C fibers, which create slow pain information.

A person experiences painful heat. Transient receptor potential ion channels are
opened resulting in depolarization and this activates the nociceptor.

7. Define hyperalgesia and describe two ways in which the sensitivity of nociceptors
can be regulated.
Hyperalgesia- increased pain sensitivity due to previous activation

The breakdown of lipids creates prostaglandins, which promote hyperalgesia.

Substance P can be released by free nerve endings, stimulating Mast Cells to release
histamine.

8. State why spicy food is perceptually “hot,” and how the active
chemical capsaicin can be used for pain relief.
Spicy food is perceived as “hot” because capsaicin, the chemical of spice, stimulates
TRPv1 receptors allowing for them to open and depolarize. This will stimulate the
nociceptor.

Some drugs used for the treatment of arthritis or chronic pain contain capsaicin and a
mild anesthetic. This applied to the skin can create a sensation of heat, and after
desensitization, warmth. This occurs by depleting the Substance P reserved around
the area and the retraction of free nerve endings form near the surface of the skin.
9. Describe how nociceptors enter the spinal cord and begin to ascend via
the anterolateral tract, and contrast this with the dorsal column system for touch.
Pain information enters the spinal cord through the dorsal roots, it synaptically
connects within the spinal cord, and then it crosses (contralateral) and rises through
the anterolateral tract. C fibers terminate in layers one and two of the dorsal horn. A-
delta fibers terminate in layer five of the dorsal horn.

Touch does not cross across the spinal cord, so it is ipsilateral.

10. Define referred pain and describe how these results from pain pathway organization
at the level of the spinal cord.
Referred pain- is when organ pain is felt as a cutaneous sensation. This is organized
by the dermatomes (if an organ is within a dermatome, referred pain will be felt in the
dermatome on the skin level). This is like when someone feels pain in their left arm
when they are having a heart attack.

11. State the general roles of the lateral and medial pain systems.
Lateral pathway- focuses on where and how the pain is perceived.

Medial pathway- focuses on the emotional effects and the severity of how the pain is
felt.

12. Describe the basic pathway and organization of the lateral system and trigeminal
system for pain.
Lateral- Spinal cord (ipsilaterally)> medulla>dorsal column nuclei> medial
lominiscus>thalamus>primary somatosensory cortex.

Trigeminal- Trigeminal nerve>medulla>thalamus> somatosensory cortex

13. Name the principal structures of the medial pain system and state their basic role.
 Reticular formation- regulates arousal.

Periaqueductal gray- pain regulation

Hypothalamus- controls ANS

Amygdala- regulates fear and anger.

Anterior cingulate cortex- perceived severity

14. Describe the experimental evidence for the role of the anterior cingulate cortex in
pain from the effects of an anterior cingulotomy, hypnosis, and results from
experiments in empathy.
In the experiment, the anterior cingulate cortex was severed due to severe untreatable
pain (neuropathic). The patients were able to distinguish where the pain was and what
kind of pain it was, but they reported that the pain was not as unpleasant. Hypnosis
can cause someone to feel similar pain. Sensory aspects were still the same, but the
ACC was less active. Empathy uses the ACC similarly to if you are in pain.

15. Define analgesia.

Analgesia- the reduction of the sensation of pain (swearing, rubbing the sight of
pain).

16. Describe how mechanical stimulation and Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
(TENs) can reduce the perception of pain using the gate control theory of pain.
The gate control theory is A-beta fibers activate interneurons, which then prevent
signals from secondary pain neurons from ascending the spinal column and therefore
making their way to the brain. TENS units activate the A-beta fibers, which then set
off the above events.

17. Describe the role of the PAG in pain regulation, including the types of stimuli and
brain regions that activate it, and how it acts to regulate the pain gate.
 Electrical stimulation of the Periaqueductal gray, through deep brain stimulation, has
been shown in clinical studies to produce pain relief. The PAG can be activated by
emotions, stress, the cingulate cortex gate control theory, opiates, and endorphins
(pain in a different area). The PAG regulates pain through input from the amygdala
and hypothalamus. The PAG acts on the locus coeruleus and raphe nuclei. The raphe
nuclei, activated by the PAG (presynaptic) inhibits the transmission of pain
information by releasing opiates.

18. Name the three classes of endogenous opiates, the function of naloxone, and describe
the conditions under which endogenous opiates are released.
Endogenous opiates include endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphins. Naloxone
(Narcan) is used to treat opiate overdoses (competitive antagonist). Endogenous
opiates are released when the patient is in pain, stressed, or exercising, and are used
as reward stimuli (addictive quality).

19. State how opiates activate the PAG and close the pain gate.
Opiates activate the PAG by disinhibition (inhibiting the inhibitors, in this case, the
GABA-neurons) or inhibiting the C-fibers in the pain gate.

20. Describe the distribution of opiate receptors with respect to the lateral and medial
pain systems and what this means for pain perception.
Opiates act on both the PAG (medial) and the pain gate (lateral) pain systems. This
means that they are highly effective for the reduction of the sensation of pain.

21. Describe how naloxone was used to assess the role of endogenous opiates in
the placebo effect for pain.
The placebo effect is the release of opiates naturally by the body because the patient
believes that a substance will provide pain relief. Naloxone was used to block the
 reception of the opiates that were released by the body and this determined that the
body was naturally releasing opiates with no outside chemical stimulation.

22. Describe how opiates contribute to individual differences in pain sensitivity.

Differences in opiate receptors can affect an individual’s pain sensitivity. This can be
explained through variations in genetic coding that lead to changes in an opiate
receptor and how many receptors a person has.
 Week 4- Auditory
1. Describe the characteristics of air pressure waves that correspond to our perception
of pitch, loudness, and complexity.
Air pressure is the compression/ decompression of air to create waves which are
perceived as sound. Pitch is the number of times a wave repeats per second (Hz).
Loudness is the height of the waves in decibels (dB). Complexity is timbre and sound
quality through a mix of pitch and tone.

2. Name the three regions of the ear and state their basic function.
Outer ear- focusses waves

Middle ear- amplifies waves and starts transduction.

Inner ear- transduces and codes.

3. Name the three ossicles in order from the eardrum to the oval window, state their
collective role in auditory transduction, and state how their movement can be
regulated to mediate the acoustic reflex.
Malleus< Incus< Stapes- presses the oval window to create fluid waves.

The muscles of the ossicles will limit the movement of the middle ear movements for
loud sounds to protect the ear in the acoustic reflex.

4. Describe the route by which the traveling wave moves through the cochlea and state
the relevance of the basilar membrane.
Sound moves from the oval window to the scala vestibuli, to the scala tympani, and to
the round window.

The basal membrane vibrates when the sound waves travel through the cochlea and
they help transduce the sound into transmittable information.
5. State the significance of the organ of Corti and the tectorial membrane and
differentiate the function of inner and outer hair cells.
The organ of Corti contains the hair cells used to transduce physical sound waves into
sensory information. The tectorial membrane holds the hairs cells allowing them to
bend and create APs.

The inner hair cells (singular) perceive sound.

Outer hair cells (groups of three) regulate how the basal membrane vibrates and how
sound is amplified.

6. Outline the process of auditory transduction beginning with the deformation of

stereocilia through the release of neurotransmitter by the hair cell.
Auditory transduction occurs microscopically at the inner hair cells. When the hair
cells are bent, the tip links open the mechanically gated channels. This allows for the
influx of K+ because of the concentration gradient, this depolarizes the cells, which
opens voltage gate Ca2+ channels, which releases neurotransmitters.

7. Describe how the transduction mechanism of hair cells allows them to phase-lock to a
particular aspect of the waveform.
 Hair cells can phase-lock when the shear force of the waves goes into the ascending
phase causing the hairs can bend back into the neutral position, closing the K+
mechanically gated channel.

8. State how the auditory nerve is a mixed nerve and provide a description of the tuning
curves of sensory afferents.
The auditory nerve is a mixed nerve because it sends both sensory and motor
information through the afferent information (sound information) and efferent
information (mechanical information sent to the hair cells and nerve terminal).
Tuning curves are sensitivity to a frequency compared to loudness on a specific axon.

9. Describe how the basilar membrane is organized tonotopically, and how this results
in place coding and the establishment of tonotopy in the CNS.
The basal membrane has a cone-like structure to where at the oval window it is very
narrow, and it widens as it gets closer to the apex. Where the peak hits the membrane
helps the ear determine the frequency of the sound. The hair cells at the peak will
have the greatest activity. There is a tonotopic map of frequencies in the CNS where
certain cells are responsible for certain frequencies that are sensed.

10. Name the two primary cues used for sound localization and describe the importance
of binaural fusion in sound localization.
Time difference- the difference between how fast sound is perceived between the two
ears (the difference is smaller the more in front the sound is to a person). A sound
shadow is created based on where the sound is relative to the ear. Intensity is
perceived by the difference between the shadows of the two ears (sounds in front will
have no difference).

Binaural fusion is the combination of the sounds both ears perceive. This occurs in
the olivary complex and trapezoid body of both sides of the brain. This helps with
timing and intensity.
11. Outline the mechanism for processing timing differences, including the pathway, the
role of phase-locked neurons, and the Jeffress model of coincidence detectors.
Timing information is converged in the medial superior olive based on frequency and
time difference of both ears. Phase-locked neurons only react to certain frequencies
not intensity. The phase-locked neurons of both ears send a signal to the superior
olive, and it measures the time difference of those signals. A coincidence detector
detects when both phase-locked neurons send the signal at the same time and fires at
it maximum capacity. Delay lines add a longer path for the signal to travel because of
a set sound delay that will allow the two signals to reach the coincidence detector at
the same time so it will activate. There are multiple detectors, and they will respond
to different time delays.

12. Outline the mechanism for processing intensity differences, including the pathway,
and the nature of the binaural interaction within the LSO.
The cochlear nuclei send information to the LSO (ipsilaterally) and MNTB
(contralaterally). MNTB sends inhibitory information to the LSO for comparative
purposes (if one side has a more intense signal than the other).

13. Describe the function of the space maps in the inferior colliculus and how these
correspond to visual maps in the superior colliculus.
Receptive fields can be mapped within the brain based on auditory space in the
inferior colliculus. The superior colliculus overlaps this and allows for the detection
of the sound in the visual field.

14. Describe the basic structure of auditory cortex, including differences in responses in
the cortex to simple or complex sounds and the two pathways (or streams) that
emerge from primary cortex and their basic functions.
The primary auditory cortex is tonotopically organized and receives information from
the MGN and thalamus. The secondary auditory cortex receives information from the
primary auditory cortex. The primary auditory cortex responds to simple sounds and
 the primary and secondary auditory cortexes respond to sound that has patterns such
as speech. The ventral stream decodes complex sounds such as animal noises and
speech. The dorsal stream helps produce speech through motor output and the
memory of what the sound sounds like.

15. Describe the functions of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in language, including
evidence from aphasias and sign language.
Broca’s area is the brain of the brain which produces speech in the dorsal stream.

Wernicke’s area is the brain which processes language in the ventral stream.

Patients with Broca’s aphasia cannot produce language as smoothly or easily

(stuttering). Patients with Wernicke’s aphasia have a difficult time understanding
language (they will answer fluidly but what they say will be nonsensical). People
who learn sign language as a first language can have these deficits.

16. Describe the evidence for hemispheric specialization for music, and how
development of musical expertise can change primary auditory cortex.
Music is processed primarily in the right hemisphere. This is evident in MRIs of
newborns who hear music. Heschl’s gyrus is where auditory processing begins. It can
be larger in professional musicians compared to non-musicians.

17. Describe the experiment and behavioral results of shifting visual fields on sound
localization as performed on owls.
The experimenters put light-shifting prism glasses over the eyes of owls. This was to
distort their vision to the right by 23 degrees. Their eyes do not move so this would
display the plasticity of the brain from visual-sound sensation. A visual or sound
stimuli was present to the owl and the rotation of its head was measured. The control
was accurate, but while having the prisms one for the first time, the owl was 23
degrees off the target. After 42 days, the brain was able to orient itself to the 23
degree shift. After removing the prisms, they were now unoriented and took time to
readjust.

18. Describe how interaural time difference turning curves in the inferior colliculus
change because of shifting visual fields, and how this shift is age-dependent.
The interaural time difference turning curves change in the inferior colliculus by
shifting the tuning curves of the axons to compensate for the shift in the visual field.
The only happens in young owls and presumably humans (sensitive period).
19. Describe the changes in frequency tuning curves in primary auditory cortex that result
from associative conditioning and how these changes alter the cortical representation
of the learned sound.
The tuning curves shift due to associative conditioning. This was shown in the
experiment where a shock was given to a mouse where a specific frequency was
played before the shock was given. The tuning curves shifted to respond to the
frequency associated with pain. Overall, the auditory cortex changed to have a greater
area of it responding to that tone and tones around it.