AR3502 – STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF

CONCRETE
[Compiled By : Er. Sethupathi, AP/[Link]]
ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

AR3502 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE L T P/S C

OBJECTIVES 3 0 0 3
 To inform about different methods of design of structures.
 To enable design of concrete beams, slabs, staircase, column, foundations under different conditions
using limit state method of design

UNIT 1 DESIGN METHODS – INTRODUCTION 5

Concept of elastic method, Ultimate load method and Limit state method. Advantages of limit state method
over other methods.

UNIT 2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF BEAMS 10

Analysis and design of singly and doubly reinforced rectangular and flanged beams for bending and shear.
Design of Continuous beams using IS 456 codal provisions.

UNIT 3 LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF SLABS 11

Behavior of one way and two way slabs. Design of one way and two way slabs for various edge conditions.
Torsion effects. Design of simply supported and fixed circular slabs subjected to uniformly distributed loads.
Types of Staircases. Design of dog legged staircase.

UNIT 4 LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF COLUMNS 8

Lonf and Short column. Axially loaded rectangular and circular column. Columns subjected to uniaxial and
biaxial bending. Design of column using interaction diagram. Use of SP 16.

UNIT 5 LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF FOUNDATION AND RETAINING WALL 11

Types of foundation. Design of wall footing. Design of loaded rectangular and sloped footing. Design of
combined rectangular footings. Types of Retaining wall. Design of Cantilever retaining wall.

OUTCOME TOTAL : 45 PERIODS

 Ability to understand the different concepts of WSM and LSM.
 Ability to design RCC Beams, slabs, staircase, columns, foundations and retaining wall.

TEXT BOOKS
1. Dr. B.C. Punmia, 'Reinforced Concrete Structures' Vol, 1 and 2', Laxmi Publication, Delhi, 2015.
2. [Link] Pillai and Devados Menon, 'Reinforced Concrete Design', Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 2017.
3. S.N. Sinha, “Reinforced Concrete Design”, Tata McGraw Hill , 2017.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. [Link], 'Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures', Medtech, 2017.
2. C. Sinha and S.K. Roy, 'Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete', S. Chand and Co., New Delhi,2007.
3. N. Krishna Raju, ‘Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures’, CBS Publishers and Distributors, 2016.
4. IS 456-2000, 'Indian Standard, Plain and Reinforced Concrete, Code of Practice', Bureau of Indian
Standards, 2000.

www. [Link]
ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

UNIT 1

DESIGN METHODS - INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Concrete is a stone like substance obtained by permitting a carefully

proportioned mixture of cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate and
water to harden in forms of the shape and of dimensions of the desired
structure. Reinforced Concrete is the common term given to a concrete
member that contains steel reinforcement (usually in the form of steel
bars) to increase the strength of the structure. The material that results
from the combination of concrete and reinforcing bars is called
Reinforced Concrete (RC). During construction, the reinforcement steel is
placed in the formwork first, either in the form of a prefabricated steel
cage or steel rebars that are fastened together and wired in-situ. Then concrete is poured into the formwork
and vibrated using adequate devices so as to guarantee a high level of collaboration between the two
materials.

1.2 NEED OF REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE

One of the main disadvantages of concrete is its very low tensile strength that is practically exceeded at low
levels of load. This results in cracking of the concrete surfaces that in turn leads to aesthetical problems (large
deflection of beams or slabs) for the serviceability limit state as well as structural integrity problems at the
ultimate limit state. On the other hand, reinforcing steel has rather high tensile strength and a symmetrical
material constitutive law under tension and compression. However, rebar alone that is subjected to
compression fails prematurely due to buckling. For these reasons, the use of reinforcement in an RC section
leads to effective structural behavior as reinforcing steelworks effectively under tension and concrete works
effectively under compression and confines the compression reinforcement. Figure shows the Bending
Moment Diagram of a continuous beam under vertical loads as well as the locations where reinforcing steel
should be placed. It is important to note that the collaboration between concrete and reinforcing steel is
facilitated by the fact that both materials have the same thermal expansion coefficient, which means that
temperature variation does not cause additional internal stresses in the concrete-rebar interface.

Normally, the tensile strength of concrete is about 10 to 15% of its

compressive strength. Hence, if a beam is made of plain cement
concrete, it has a very low load carrying capacity since its low
tensile strength limits its overall strength. It is therefore,
reinforced by placing steel bars in the tensile zone of the concrete
beam so that the compressive bending stress is carried by concrete
and tensile bending stress is carried entirely by steel reinforcing
bars.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

1.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE

 It has relatively high compressive strength

 It has better resistance to fire than steel
 It has long service life with low maintenance cost
 In some types of structures, such as dams, piers and footings, it is most economical structural material
 It can be cast to take the shape required, making it widely used in pre-cast structural components
 It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection
 Yield strength of steel is about 15 times the compressive strength of structural concrete and well over
100 times its tensile strength
 By using steel, cross-sectional dimensions of structural members can be reduced

1.2.2 DIS-ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE

 It needs mixing, casting and curing, all of which affect the final strength of concrete
 The cost of the forms used to cast concrete is relatively high
 It has low compressive strength as compared to steel (the ratio is about 1:10 depending on material)
which leads to large sections in columns/beams of multi-story buildings Cracks develop in concrete
due to shrinkage and the application of live loads

1.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY & CONCEPT OF RCC DESIGN

The design of a structure may be regarded as the process of selecting proper materials and proportioned
elements of the structure, according to the art, engineering science and technology. In order to fulfill its
purpose, the structure must meet its conditions of safety, serviceability, economy and functionality.

 Working stress method

 Ultimate load method
 Limit state method

1.3.1 WORKING STRESS METHOD

This design concept is based on elastic theory, assuming a straight-line stress distribution along the depth of
the concrete. The actual loads or working loads acting on the structure are estimated and members are
proportioned on the basis of certain allowable stresses in concrete and steel. The allowable stresses are
fractions of the crushing strength of concrete (fck) and the yield strength (fy). Because of the differences in
realism and reliability over the past several decades, the strength design method has displaced the older stress
design method.

1.3.2 ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD OR STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD

It is based on the ultimate strength of the structural members assuming a failure condition, whether due to the
crushing of concrete or due to the yield of reinforced steel bars. Although there is additional strength in the
bar after yielding due to Strain Hardening, this additional strength in the bar is not considered in the analysis
or design of the reinforced concrete members. In the strength design method, actual loads or working loads are
multiplied by load factor to obtain the ultimate design loads. The load factor represents a high percentage of
factor for safety required in the design. This method is more economical than working stress method.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

1.3.3 LIMIT STATE METHOD

It is also known as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). It is a further step in the strength design
method. It indicates the state of the member in which it ceases to meet the service requirements, such as,
losing its ability to withstand external loads or local damage. According to limit state design, reinforced
concrete members have to be analysed with regard to three limit states:
1. Load carrying capacity (involves safety, stability and durability)
2. Deformation (deflection, vibrations, and impact)
3. The formation of cracks
The aim of this analysis is to ensure that no limiting state will appear in the structural member during its
service life.

1.4 ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD

In this method, ultimate or collapse load is used as design load. The ultimate loads are obtained by increasing
the working/service loads suitably by some factors. These factors which are multiplied by the working loads
to obtain ultimate loads are called as load factors. These load factors give the exact margins of safety in terms
of load. This method used the real stress-strain curve of concrete and steel and takes into account the plastic
behaviour of these materials. Many designers feel that the load factor provides a clear margin of safety and
one can easily tell the load at which the structure fails, which is not clear from the working stress concept of
permissible stresses. This method was given in detail in IS 456-1964.

1.4.1 MERITS OF ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD

 The method is more realistic as compared to working stress method because ultimate load method
taken into account the non-linear behaviour of the concrete.
 This method gives exact margin of safety in terms of load unlike working stress method which is
based on the permissible stresses which do not give any idea about the failure/collapse load.
 The sections designed by ultimate load method are thinner and require less reinforcement. Hence the
method is economical as compared to working stress method.

1.4.2 LIMITATIONS OF ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD

 This method gives very thin sections which leads to excessive deformations and cracking, thus making
the structure unserviceable.
 No factors of safety are used for material stresses.
 As the serviceability requirements are not satisfied at all in this method, the code replaced this method
by limit state method which takes into account the strength as well as serviceability requirements.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

1.5 LIMIT STATE METHOD

This is the most rational method which takes into account the ultimate strength of the structure and also the
serviceability requirements. It is a judicious combination of working stress and ultimate load methods of
design. The acceptable limits of safety and serviceability requirements before failure occurs is called a limit
state. This method is based on the concept of safety at ultimate loads (ultimate load method) and serviceability
at working loads (working stress method).

1.5.1 LIMIT STATES CONSIDERED IN THE DESIGN

 Limit state of collapse

Flexure
Shear and bond
Torsion
Compression
 Limit state of serviceability
Deflection
Cracking
Vibration

This method is based upon the probability’s variation in the loads and material properties. Limit state method
takes into account the uncertainties associated with loads and material properties, thus uses partial factors of
safety to obtain design loads and design stresses.

The limit state method is based on predictions unlike working stress method which is deterministic in nature,
assumes that the loads, factors of safety and material stresses are known accurately. In the limit state method,
the partial safety factors are derived using probability and statistics and are different for different load
combinations, hence giving a more rational and scientific design procedure.

1.6 WORKING STRESS METHOD

This method of design was the oldest one. It is based on the elastic theory and assumes that both steel and
concrete and elastic and obey Hook’s law. It means that the stress is directly proportional to strain up to the
point of collapse.

Based on the elastic theory, and assuming that the bond between steel and concrete is perfect, permissible
stresses of the materials are obtained. The basis of this method is that the permissible stresses are not exceeded
anywhere in the structure when it is subjected to worst combination of working loads. Working stress method
is the basic method and its knowledge is essential for understanding the concepts of design.

In this method, the ultimate strength of concrete and yield strength or 0.2% proof stress of steel are divided by
factors of safety to obtain permissible stresses. These factors of safety take into account the uncertainties in
manufacturing of these materials. As per IS456, a factor of safety of 3 is to be used for bending compressive
stresses in concrete and 1.78 for yield/proof strength of steel.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

1.6.1 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS IN ELASTIC THEORY

In the elastic theory, the materials are assumed to behave in a linear elastic manner and the required safety of
the structure is ensured by restricting the stresses in concrete and steel to permissible stresses obtained by
applying suitable factor of safety to the characteristic strength of the materials. The resulting permissible or
working stresses under service loads will be well within the linear elastic range of the materials. The basic
assumptions incorporated in the elastic theory of flexure according to the Indian standard code IS : 456 – 2000
are as follows,

1. Plane section remains plane, before and after bending

2. Strain varies linearly over the depth of the section
3. All the tensile stresses are resisted by reinforcement and none by concrete except in uncracked phase
where concrete can resist a small magnitude of tension as permitted depending upon the grade of
concrete specified in the code.
4. The stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete under working loads is a straight line implying that
stresses are linearly proportional to strains for both concrete and steel

5. Modular ratio,

1.6.2 ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

Since concrete is weak in tension, concrete below the neutral axis neglected in computations. Below neutral
axis the steel is converted into an equivalent area of concrete by multiplying the steel area by modular ratio
and this area contributes to the tensile force for equilibrium of the section.

Direct tensile stress =

Direct compressive stress =

and = Equivalent area of the section

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

NEUTRAL AXIS

From the stress block diagram, = ⁄

= ( )

= ( )

( ) =

Neutral axis = d

Neutral axis depth factor, (k) =

MOMENT OF RESISTANCE

Compression taken by concrete = ( ) Moment = b h * CG

Tension taken by steel = ( ) Moment = T * CG

Position of neutral axis =

( ) = ( )

Moment of Resistance (Comp) = ( )

From neutral axis depth factor = kd

= ( )

= ( )

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

Let j = ( )

Compressive force generated C =

Sub C in the above equation =

\Where, Q =

Then d = √

Moment of Resistance (Tension) = ( )

= ( )

= ( )

Stress in Steel =

Stress in concrete =

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

1.6.3 TYPES OF BEAM SECTIONS

a) Balanced section
b) Under reinforced section
c) Over reinforced section

BALANCED SECTION

A balanced sections is that in which stress in concrete and steel

reach their permissible value at the same time. The percentage of
steel corresponding to this section is called as balanced steel and the
neutral axis is called as critical neutral axis

Moment of Resistance = ( )

This section is called as critical section or economical section. Thus for a reinforced concrete having the
above properties if the reinforcement provided is 0.72 % of the cross-section, a balanced section will be
obtained.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

UNDER REINFORCED SECTION

In an under reinforced section, the percentage of steel provided is less than that provided in balanced section.
So the actual neutral axis will shift upwards i.e., . In under reinforced section, the stress in steel first
reaches it permissible value, while the concrete is under stressed.

The moment of resistance of this section is calculated as

= ( )

The various features of under reinforced concrete section are as follows:

1. Steel is fully stressed while concrete not (i.e., stress in steel is σst (permissible) but stress in concrete is
less than σcbc
2. The actual neutral axis lies above the critical neutral axis (n < nc).
3. The percentage of steel is less than the balanced section hence the section is economical.
4. Ductile failure.
5. The moment of resistance is less than balanced section.

In under reinforced section, the failure is ductile because steel fails first and sufficient warning is given before
collapse. Due to ductile failure and economy, the under-reinforced sections are preferred by designers.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

OVER REINFORCED SECTION

In an over reinforced section, the percentage of steel provided is greater than that provided in balanced
section. So the actual neutral axis will shift downwards i.e., . In this section, stress in concrete reaches
its permissible value while steel is not fully stressed. Concrete is brittle and it fails by crushing suddenly. As
steel is not fully utilised, the over reinforced section is uneconomical (steel is much costlier than concrete).

The moment of resistance of this section is calculated as

= ( )

The various features of over reinforced concrete section are as follows:

1. Concrete is fully stressed while steel is not (i.e., the stress in concrete is at its permissible value
σcbc but stress in steel is less than σst).
2. The actual neutral axis is below the critical neutral axis i.e., n > nc.
3. The percentage of steel is more than the balanced section, so the section is uneconomical.
4. Sudden failure.

A beam bends under bending moment, resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of the
curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it experiences
compressive stress.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

1.6.4 TYPES OF BEAMS

a) Singly reinforced beams

b) Doubly reinforced beams
c) Under-Reinforced beam
d) Over-reinforced beam
e) Balanced reinforced beam

SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM

A singly reinforced beam is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile face and the
reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension.

DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM

A doubly reinforced beam is one in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is also
reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression. The latter reinforcement is called
compression steel. When the compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to resist the compressive moment
(positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section.

UNDER-REINFORCED BEAM

An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is smaller than the
combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face).
When the reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension steel yields while
the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an “under-
reinforced” concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its
ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress of the steel governs the design.

OVER-REINFORCED BEAM

An over-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is greater than the combined
compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (over-reinforced at tensile face). So, the
“over-reinforced concrete” beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone concrete and before the tension
zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before failure as the failure is instantaneous.

BALANCED-REINFORCED BEAM

A balanced-reinforced beam is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at the same
imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same time. This
design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is sudden as the concrete
crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little warning of distress in tension
failure.

Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-reinforced

so that users of the structure will receive warning of impending collapse.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

1.6.5 ANALYSIS OF SINGLY REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM BY WORKING STRESS METHOD

To analyse this section, it is necessary to convert it into a transformed or equivalent section of concrete.

EQUIVALENT or TRANSFORMED SECTION

All the tensile stresses are taken by steel and none by concrete i.e., concrete in the tensile zone is cracked. So,
the concrete area below the neutral axis is neglected and the effective area or the equivalent area of the section
in terms of concrete is shown. The equivalent area is equal to the area of concrete in the compression zone and
an additional concrete area mAst of concrete corresponding to steel area, Ast

STRAIN DIAGRAM

The strain distribution is linear, with value zero at the neutral axis to maximum at the top and bottom fibre.

STRESS DIAGRAM

The stress-strain relationship is linear for concrete. So, the stress diagram is also a straight line with value zero
at neutral axis and varying linearly with the distance.

NEUTRAL AXIS

Neutral axis lies at the centre of gravity of the section. It is defined as that axis at which the stresses are
zero. It divides the section into tension and compression zone. The position of the neutral axis depends upon
the shape (dimensions) of the section and the amount of steel provided.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

Let us consider the RCC section as shown in the figure. The

stress in concrete’s top most fibre ( ) and steel reinforcement
( ) are known.

⁄
From stress diagram =

If stress es in concrete and steel are permissible then equation for x is written as

This neutral axis, corresponding to permissible values of stresses of concrete and steel is called as
critical neutral axis

= kd

On rearranging, we get k =

Substitute m =

k =

k =

The moment of the tensile and compressive area should be equal at the neutral axis. The neutral axis
obtained by this method is called as actual neutral axis.

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

Area in compression * Distance between C.G of

Moment of compressive area =
compressive area and Neutral axis

Moment of tensile area = Equivalent tensile area * Distance of centroid of

steel reinforcement from neutral axis
= ( )

Moment of compressive area = Moment of tensile area

= ( )

On rearranging =
( )
= 100

= 100 ( )

=
( )

( )
= Sub x = kd
( )

=
( )

=
( )

LEVER ARM
Lever arm is the distance between the resultant compressive force and the resultant tensile force. It is
denoted as a in the stress diagram. As the compressive area is triangular, the resultant compressive
force (C) will act at from the top compressive fibre. The resultant tensile force (T) will act at the
centroid of the steel reinforcement

Lever arm a =

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

It is also expressed as a = jd j = Lever arm depth factor

Then jd =

j =

MOMENT OF RESISTANCE

Moment of resistance is the resistance offered by the beam

against external loads. As there is no resultant force acting
on the beam and the section is in equilibrium, the total
compressive force is equal to the total tensile force. These
two forces (equal and opposite separated by a distance) will
form a couple and the moment of this couple is equal to the
resisting moment or moment of resistance of the section.

Acting at x/3 from

Total Compression = ( )
top

Acting at centroid of
Total Tension = ( )
steel

Moment of resistance for

= C*a
compression

= ( ) ( )

= ( ) ( )

= ( ) ( )

Resisting Moment Factor Q =

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1.6.6 MERITS OF WORKING STRESS METHOD

 It is simple, both in concept as well as in application.

 It is reasonably reliable.
 It is essential to have a knowledge of working stress method (WSM), since it forms a part of Limit
state method (LSM). IS:456-2000 has incorporated LSM and WSM. But the concept of WSM is
retained for checking serviceability states of deflection and cracking.
 The design usually results in large sections of structural members as compared to LSM. Due to this,
structure design by WSM gives better serviceability performance, i.e. less deflection, less crack width,
etc.

1.6.7 LIMITATIONS OF WORKING STRESS METHOD

 It assumes that concrete is elastic which is not true as the concrete behaves in-elastically even on low
level of stresses.
 It uses factors of safety for stresses only and not for loads. Hence, this method does not give true
margin of safety with respect to loads because we do not know the failure load.
 It does not use any factor of safety with respect to loads. It means, there is no provision for the
uncertainties associated with the estimation of loads.
 It does not account for shrinkage and creep which are time dependent and plastic in nature.
 This method gives uneconomical sections.
 It pays no attention to the conditions that arise at the time of collapse.
 The working stress method is very simple and reliable but as per IS 456:2000 the working stress
method is to be used only if it is not possible to use limit state method of design.

1.6.8 COMPARISON OF BALANCED, UNDER AND OVER REINFORCED SECTIONS

TYPE OF RELATION MODE OF MOMENT OF RESISTANCE

SECTION BETWEEN XU AND X FAILURE EQUATION

Both Concrete
Balanced
and Steel

Steel
Under reinforced
(Ductile Failure)
Concrete
Over reinforced
(Brittle Failure)

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UNIT 2

LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF CONCRETE BEAMS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The limit state method is a balanced combination of the working stress method and the ultimate load
design method. Where the working stress method provides adequate performance at the working load but no
observation gives to the conditions at the time of the collapse of the structure. On the other hand, the ultimate
load or load factor method of design is used in construction but the ultimate load method takes to excessive
deflection cracking. So, it is not preferable. But the limit state method is given the exact value of safety. so
that method is more preferable in construction. This method is used to confirm that the structure should be
able to withstand all the load that’s acting on the structure. This method gives an idea about the serviceability
requirement of limiting deflection and cracking. The limit state method is to define the maximum load-
carrying capacity and the safety requirements of the structure. The limit state method of design is conferred in
section 5 of IS code 456: 2000.

2.2 LIMIT STATE

Limit states are the acceptable limits for the safety and serviceability requirements of the structure before
failure occurs. The design of structures by this method will thus ensure that they will not reach limit states and
will not become unfit for the use for which they are intended. It is worth mentioning that structures will not
just fail or collapse by violating (exceeding) the limit states. Failure, therefore, implies that clearly defined
limit states of structural usefulness has been exceeded.

2.2.1 TYPES OF LIMIT STATE

LIMIT STATE

LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE / STRENGTH LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY

2.2.2 LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE

The limit state of collapse of the structure or part of the structure could be assessed from rupture of one or
more critical sections and from buckling due to elastic or plastic instability (including the effects of sway
where appropriate) or overturning. The resistance to bending, shear, torsion and axial loads at every section
shall not be less than the appropriate value at that section produced by the probable most unfavourable
combination of loads on the structure using the appropriate partial safety factors.

2.2.3 LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY

Limit state of serviceability deals with deflection and cracking of structures under service loads, durability
under working environment during their anticipated exposure conditions during service, stability of structures
as a whole, fire resistance etc

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LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY

Failure due to flexure, shear and tension Excessive deflection

Failure due to fatigue repeated loads Cracking
Bond and anchorage failure Spalling of concrete
Elastic instability
Impact, earthquake, fire and frost
Chemicals and corrosion

2.3 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION

The aim of design is the achievement of an acceptable probability that structures being designed will perform
satisfactorily during their intended life. With an appropriate degree of safety, they should sustain all the loads
and deformations of normal construction and use and have adequate durability and adequate resistance to the
effects of misuse and fire. Structure and structural elements shall normally be designed by Limit State
Method. Account should be taken of accepted theories, experiment and experience and the need to design for
durability. Calculations alone do not produce safe, serviceable and durable structures. Suitable materials,
quality control, adequate detailing and good supervision are equally important. Where the Limit State Method
cannot be conveniently adopted, Working Stress Method may be used.

2.3.2 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The term “Characteristic strength” means that value of the strength of the material below which not more than
5 percent of the test results are expected to fall. Until the relevant Indian Standard Specifications for
reinforcing steel are modified to include the concept of characteristic strength, the characteristic value shall be
assumed as the minimum yield stress10.2 percent proof stress specified in the relevant Indian Standard
Specifications.

2.3.3 CHARACTERISTIC LOADS

The term “characteristic load” means that value of LOADS CODAL PROVISIONS
load which has a 95 percent probability of not being
exceeded during the life of the structure. Dead load IS 875 – Part 1
Live load IS 875 – Part 2
Since data are not available to express loads in
statistical terms, for the purpose of this standard, Wind load IS 875 – Part 3
the following are assumed as the characteristic Snow load IS 875 – Part 4
loads.
Seismic forces IS 1893

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2.3.4 PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS FOR MATERIALS

f = Characteristic strength of material

= Partial safety factor appropriate material

MATERIAL COLLAPSE SERVICEABILITY DAMAGE

CONCRETE 1.5 1 1
STEEL 1.5 1 1

2.3.5 PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS FOR LOADS

F = Characteristic load

= Partial safety factor appropriate nature of loading

LOAD LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY

COMBINATION
DL LL WL DL LL WL
DL + IL 1.5 1 1 1 -
1.5 or
DL + WL - 1.5 1 - 1
0.9
DL + IL + WL 1.2 1 0.8 0.8

2.4 LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE: FLEXURE

Limit state is the maximum stress condition of the structure just before the collapse. Throughout a structured
life, it gives proper strength and serviceability by limit state. Limit state of collapse deals with the safety of the
structure and the limit state of serviceability deals with the durability of the structure in the limit state method.

ASSUMPTIONS

1. Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending

2. The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fibre is taken as 0.0035 in bending
3. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored
4. The relationship between the compressive stress distribution in concrete and the strain in concrete may
be assumed to be rectangle, trapezoid parabola or any other shape which results in prediction of
strength prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results of the test. An acceptable
stress-strain curve is given in the figure. For the design purposes, the compressive strength of concrete
in the structure shall be assumed to be 0.7 times the characteristic strength. The partial safety factor of
1.5 shall be applied in addition to this.

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From the stress- strain curve,

Area of stress block = 0.36 fck Xu
Depth of centre of compressive force from the extreme fibre in compression = 0.42 Xu

5. The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from representative stress-strain curve for the type of
steel used. For the design purposes the partial safety factor equal to 1.15 shall be applied

6. The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall not be less than

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2.5 SINGLY REINFORCED BEAMS

Singly reinforced beams are those that are longitudinally reinforced only in the tension zone. In such beams,
the ultimate bending moment and the tension due to bending moment will be carried by the reinforcements
and the compression carried by the concrete. Practically, it is not possible to tie stirrups if it is singly
reinforced so we provide false reinforcements in compression zone also with minimum diameter bars

2.5.1 ANALYSIS OF SINGLY REINFORCED BEAMS

Design strength of concrete = =

Design strength of steel = =

NEUTRAL AXIS (Based on Stress)

Compression = Tension
=

Neutral axis =

Neutral axis depth factor =

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NEUTRAL AXIS (Based on Strain)

Ultimate strain in steel, = =

Ultimate strain in concrete, = 0.0035

Neutral axis depth factor =

Neutral axis depth factor =

= Sub
( )

= Sub E = 2 * 105 N/mm2

Neutral axis depth factor =

MOMENT CAPACITY OF THE SECTION (Under Reinforced)

Ultimate Moment of resistance = T( ) Sub T and

= ( ( ))

= ( )

Ultimate Moment of resistance = ( )

LIMITING MOMENT OF RESISTANCE (Over reinforced)

Limiting Moment of resistance = C( ) Sub C and

= ( )

= ( )

Limiting Moment of resistance = ( )

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LIMITING VALUES OF NEUTRAL AXIS DEPTH RATIO ( )

GRADE OF STEEL (N/mm2) (Yield Strain)

Fe 250 Mild Steel 250 0.0031 0.53

Fe 415 HYSD bars 415 0.0038 0.48
Fe 500 HYSD bars 500 0.0042 0.46

2.1 Find the Moment of resistance of a singly reinforced concrete beam of 200 mm width and 400 mm
effective depth, with 3 bars of 16mm dia of Fe 415 steel. Take M20 concrete. Use IS code method.
Given
Width of the beam B = 200 mm
Effective depth of beam D = 400 mm
Reinforcement details Ast = 3 # of 16 mm ø
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
Solution
Area of Steel Reinforcement Ast = n*( )
= 3*( )
Ast = 603.19 mm2
Depth of Neutral Axis

Depth of actual neutral axis =

= 0.378
Depth of critical neutral axis

=
( )

Limiting Value = 0.479 = 0.48

Since < , Depth of Actual Neutral axis < Depth of Critical Neutral axis

The Section is classified as Under Reinforced

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Moment of Resistance

= * +

= [ ]

= 73483708.29 Nmm
Result
Moment of resistance = 73.48 kNm

2.2 A reinforced concrete beam, 300 mm wide is reinforced with 1436 mm2 of Fe415 HYSD bars
at an effective depth of 500 mm. If M20 grade concrete is used, Estimate the moment of
resistance of the section.
Given
Width of the beam b = 300 mm
Effective depth of beam d = 500 mm
Reinforcement details Ast = 1436 mm2
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
Solution
Depth of Neutral Axis

= 0.48
Depth of critical neutral axis

=
( )

Limiting Value = 0.479 = 0.48

Since = , Depth of Actual Neutral axis = Depth of Critical Neutral axis

The Section is classified as Balanced

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Moment of Resistance

= * +

= [ ( )]

= 206945280 Nmm
Result
Moment of resistance = 207 kNm

2.3 Find the moment of resistance of a singly reinforced concrete beam of 200 mm width and 400 mm
effective depth, reinforced with 4 bars of 16 mm diameter of Fe415 HYSD bars. Take M20 concrete.
Use IS code method. Redesign the beam if necessary.
Given
Width of the beam B = 200 mm
Effective depth of beam D = 400 mm
Reinforcement details Ast = 4 # of 16 mm ø
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
Solution
Area of Steel Reinforcement Ast = n*( )
= 4*( )
Ast = 804.25 mm2
Depth of Neutral Axis

Depth of actual neutral axis =

= 0.504

Depth of critical neutral axis =

=
( )

Limiting Value = 0.479 = 0.48

Since > , Depth of Actual Neutral axis > Depth of Critical Neutral axis

The Section is classified as Over reinforced

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Moment of Resistance

= * +

= [ ( )]

\ = 88296652.8 Nmm
= 88.3 kNm

Since the section is classified as over reinforced section, the failure is sudden and without
warning. The code also recommends that such a beam should be redesigned.

Re-designing the Section:

= * +

88.3 * 106 = * +

= 144420 * *[ ]

= 144420 - 37.46

37.46 - 144420 + 88.3 * 106 = 0

= 762.033 mm2
Provide 3# - 18 mm dia bars as main reinforcement, so as the beam will be under reinforced
section
Result
Moment of resistance = 88.3 kNm

The section is classified as over reinforced section,

Provide 3# - 18 mm dia bars as main reinforcement

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2.4 Determine the minimum effective depth required and the corresponding area of tension
reinforcement for a rectangular beam having a width of 200 mm to resist an ultimate moment of 200
kNm, using M20 grade of concrete and Fe 415 HYSD bars of ribbed tor steel.
Given
Width of the beam B = 200 mm
Ultimate Moment Mu = 200 kNm
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2

For Fe 415 Steel = 0.48

Solution
Ultimate moment of
= * +
resistance

200 * 106 = [ ]

=
[ ]

= 3,62,414.644
Effective depth of the beam D = 602 mm
Area of reinforcement

0.48 =

= 1152.2 mm2

Result
Effective depth of beam D = 602 mm
Area of reinforcement = 1152.2 mm2

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2.6 DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS

The doubly reinforced concrete beam design may be required when a beam’s cross-section is limited because
of architectural or other considerations. As a result, the concrete cannot develop the compression force
required to resist the given bending moment. In that case, steel bars are added to the beam's compression zone
to improve it at compression. Therefore, a beam reinforced with tension steel and compression steel is called a
doubly reinforced concrete beam. The moment of resistance of a doubly reinforced concrete beam is greater
than that of a singly reinforced concrete beam for the same cross-section, steel grade, and concrete. The use of
compression reinforcement has decreased considerably due to the use of the strength method of design, which
accounts for the full strength-potential of concrete in the compression zone. Nonetheless, compression
reinforcement can be used for reasons other than strength like decreasing long term deflection of beam,
account for minimum-moment loading, and holding stirrups at their positions.

NEED OF COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT

1. To increase the strength of the concrete beam.

2. To reduce long-term deflections of members.
3. For minimum moment loading.
4. For positioning stirrups (by tying them to the compression bars) and keeping them in place during
concrete placement and vibration.

NECCESSITY OF DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS

1. When members are subjected to alternate external loads & bending moments in section
2. Shock, impact or accidental loads
3. Size of beam is limited
4. Eccentric loading
5. Beam is continuous over the supports
When compression reinforcement is added for purposes other than strength, the presence of the compression
bars is neglected in the flexural calculations.

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2.6.1 ANALYSIS OF DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM

Moment of resistance of doubly

=
reinforced beam
Limiting moment of resistance of a singly reinforced
=
beam
Moment of resistance of beam of additional
=
requirements
Moment of resistance by tension = ( )

Moment of resistance by comp = ( )

Yield stress in steel = ( )

Stress in compression steel corresponding to strain

= reached by it when the extreme concrete fibre reaches
a strain of 0.0035

= Stress in concrete in compression

Therefore, = ( )( )

Since fcc is very small = ( )

T = C

( ) = ( )

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2.5 A doubly reinforced concrete beam having a rectangular section 250 mm wide and 540 mm overall
depth is reinforced with 2 numbers of 12mm diameter in the compression side and 4 numbers of 20mm
diameter in the tension side. The effective cover to bar is 40mm. Using M20 grade of concrete and
Fe415 HYSD bars. Estimate the flexural strength of the beam using IS-456 recommendations.
Given
Width of the beam B = 250 mm
Overall depth of beam D = 540 mm
Effective cover to bars d’ = 40 mm
Reinforcement details Ast = 4 # of 20 mm ø
Asc = 2 # of 12 mm ø
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
Solution
Effective depth of the beam
Effective depth of the beam d = D – d’
= 540 - 40
d = 500 mm
Stress in Compression steel
Stress in compression steel fsc =

( )
Strain in compression steel = * +

Limiting depth of N.A = 0.48 IS 456 : Pg 70

= 0.48 * d

= 0.48 * 500

= 240 mm

( )
Strain in compression steel = [ ]

( )
= * +

= 0.00292

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Stress in compression steel fsc =

= 0.00292 * 2 * 105 0.87 * 415
= 580 361.05
fsc = 361.05 N/mm2
Area of Steel reinforcement = 0.48 *
Area of Steel Reinforcement Ast = n*( ) Asc = n*( )
= 4*( ) = 2*( )

Ast = 1256.64 mm2 Asc = 226.19 mm2

Area of steel reinforcement

=
for additional requirements

= 226.19 mm2
Area of steel reinforcement
=
for singly reinforced beam

= 1256.64 – 226.19

Ast1 = 1030.45 mm2

Actual Depth of Neutral Axis

Depth of actual neutral axis =

= 206.69 mm < 240 mm

Since < , The Section is classified as Under Reinforced

Moment of Resistance

= ( ) ( )

( )
=
( )

= 191.29 kNm

Result
Moment of resistance = 191.29 kNm

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2.6 A doubly reinforced concrete section has a width of 300mm is reinforced with tension steel of area
2455 mm2 at an effective depth of 600mm. Compression steel area of 982 mm2 is provided at an
effective cover of 60mm. Using M20 grade of concrete and Fe415 HYSD bars. Estimate the ultimate
moment capacity of the section using stress-strain curve of steel.
Given
Width of the beam b = 300 mm
Effective depth of beam d = 600 mm
Effective cover to comp steel d’ = 60 mm
Tension steel Ast = 2455 mm2
Compression steel Asc = 982 mm2
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
Solution
Stress in Compression steel

Limiting depth of N.A = 0.48 IS 456 : Pg 70

= 0.48 * d
= 0.48 * 600
= 288 mm
( )
Strain in compression steel = [ ]

( )
= * +

= 0.0028
From stress-strain curve, based on the values, Yield Stress : 415 N/mm2 and SP 16
Strain : 0.0028 Pg No : 05
Stress in compression steel fsc = 350 N/mm2
Area of Steel reinforcement = 0.48 *
Area of steel reinforcement
=
for additional requirements

= 952 mm2
Area of steel reinforcement
=
for singly reinforced beam
= 2455 – 952
Ast1 = 1503 mm2

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Actual Depth of Neutral Axis

Depth of actual neutral axis

= 251.23 mm < 288 mm

Since < , The Section is classified as Under Reinforced

Moment of Resistance
= ( ) ( )

= ( ) ( )

= 453.93 kNm

Result
Moment of resistance = 454 kNm

2.7 Find the moment of resistance of an existing beam of M15 concrete, 200 mm wide and 400 mm
effective depth is reinforced with 4# 20mm ø bars for tension & 2# 20mm ø for compression. The cover
to compression reinforcement is 50 mm. Assume steel of grade Fe 415 HYSD bars.
Given
Width of the beam b = 200 mm
Effective depth of beam d = 400 mm
Effective cover to comp steel d’ = 50 mm
Tension steel Ast = 4# 20 mm dia
Compression steel Asc = 2# 20 mm dia
Grade of concrete fck = 15 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
Solution
Stress in Compression steel

Limiting depth of N.A = 0.48 IS 456 : Pg 70

= 0.48 * d
= 0.48 * 400
= 192 mm

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( )
Strain in compression steel = [ ]

( )
= * +

= 0.0026
From stress-strain curve, based on the values, Yield Stress : 415 N/mm2 and SP 16
Strain : 0.0026 Pg No : 05
Stress in compression steel fsc = 350 N/mm2
Area of Steel reinforcement = 0.48 *
Area of Steel Reinforcement Ast = n*( ) Asc = n*( )
= 4*( ) = 2*( )

Ast = 1256.64 mm2 Asc = 628.32 mm2

Area of steel reinforcement

=
for additional requirements

= 609.09 mm2
Area of steel reinforcement
=
for singly reinforced beam
= 1256.64 – 609.09

Ast1 = 647.55 mm2

Actual Depth of Neutral Axis

Depth of actual neutral axis =

= 216.47 mm > 192 mm

Since > , The Section is classified as Over Reinforced section
Moment of Resistance

= * + ( )

= [ ] ( )

= 143.2 kNm
Result
Moment of resistance = 143.2 kNm

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2.8 Design the reinforcement for a rectangular concrete beam 300 mm wide and 400 mm deep of grade
M20 to resists the ultimate moment of 150 kNm. Use Fe 500 HYSD bars.
Given
Width of the beam b = 300 mm
Effective depth of beam d = 400 mm
Ultimate Moment Mu = 150 kNm
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 500 N/mm2
Effective cover (Assume) d’ = 50 mm
Solution
Limiting Moment of Resistance = 0.48 *

Limiting depth of N.A = 0.46 IS 456 : Pg 70

Limiting Moment of resistance = * +

= [ ]

= 128.26 kNm
Limiting Moment of Resistance = 0.48 *
Moment of resistance of
=
additional requirements
= (150 * 106) - (128.26 * 106)
Mu2 = 21.74 kNm

Area of Tension steel reinforcement

= ( )
21.74 * 106 = 0.87 * 500 * * (400 – 50)

= 142.79 mm2

= IS 456 : Pg 70

SP 16 : Pg 10
For Fe 500 & M20 = 0.76
Table E

0.76 =

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= 912 mm2

Total area of tension steel reinforcement =

= 912 + 142.79
= 1055 mm2
SP 16
Provide 4# - 20 mm ø bars as main tensile steel reinforcement
Pg No : 229
Stress in Compression steel

Limiting depth of N.A = 0.46 IS 456 : Pg 70

= 0.46 * d
= 0.46 * 400
= 184 mm
( )
Strain in compression steel = [ ]

( )
= * +

= 0.0025
From stress-strain curve, based on the values, Yield Stress : 415 N/mm2 and SP 16
Strain : 0.0025 Pg No : 05
Stress in compression steel fsc = 400 N/mm2
Area of Compression steel reinforcement
= ( )
21.74 * 106 = * 400 * (400 – 50)

= 155.3 mm2
SP 16
Provide 2# - 10 mm ø bars as main compression steel reinforcement
Pg No : 229
Result
Tensile steel reinforcement 4# - 20 mm ø bars,
Comp steel reinforcement 2# - 10 mm ø bars,

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2.7 FLANGED BEAMS

A T-beam (or tee-beam), used in construction, is a load-bearing structure of the reinforced cement
concrete, wood or metal, with a T-shaped cross section. The top of the T-shaped cross section serves as
a flange or compression member in resisting compressive stresses. The web (vertical section) of
the beam below the compression flange serves to resist shear stress and to provide greater separation for the
coupled forces of bending.

A T-beam is a structural element able to withstand large loads by resistance in the beam or by internal
reinforcements. In some respects, the T-beam dates back to the first time a human formed a bridge with a pier
and a deck. After all, a T-beam is, in one sense, no more than a pillar with a horizontal bed on top, or, in the
case of the inverted T-beam, on the bottom. The upright portion carrying the tension of the beam is termed a
web or stem, and the horizontal part that carries the compression is termed a flange. However, the materials
used have changed over the years but the basic structure is the same. T-beams structures such as highway
overpasses, buildings and parking garages, have extra material added on the underside where the web joins the
flange to reduce the T-beam’s vulnerability to shear stress. However, when one investigates more deeply into
the design of T-beams, some distinctions appear.

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2.7.1 ANALYSIS OF FLANGED BEAMS

Incase of flanged section, the ultimate flexural strength is influenced by the position of neutral axis which may
lie in the flange or outside the flange depending upon the area of reinforcement on the tension face. The
Indian standard code IS 456 : 2000 specifies equations for computing the moment of resistance of flanged
sections by assuming the stress block and the following parameters:

The following cases are considered in analysis of flanged beams,

1 Neutral axis lies within the flange

2 Neutral axis lies outside the flange and (Df/d < 0.2)
3 Neutral axis lies outside the flange and (Df/d > 0.2)

NEUTRAL AXIS LIES WITHIN THE FLANGE

In this case, since , the section can be considered as rectangular with the width of compression
flange.

Then = <
Moment of resistance for under
= ( )
reinforced section

= ( )

Moment of resistance for over

= ( )
reinforced section

= ( )

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sss

NEUTRAL AXIS LIES OUTSIDE THE FLANGE &

When the neutral axis falls outside the flange ( ) and the ratio ( ) and ( ), the flexural
strength can be computed by using the stress block parameter. The stress blocks are considered separately for
the web portion and the flanges. Considering the tensile and compressive forces, the moment of resistance can
be computed as,

Moment of resistance = ( ) ( )

Where, =

= ( )

Final Relation for Moment of Resistance,

= ( ) + ( ) ( )

( )
Total Tension reinforcement = * + * +

NEUTRAL AXIS LIES OUTSIDE THE FLANGE &

When the neutral axis falls outside the flange ( ) and the ratio ( ) and ( ).

( ) ( ( ) )
Position of Neutral axis =

Where, = ( )

Moment of Resistance,

= ( ) + ( ) ( )

Tension reinforcement in web = * +

( )
Tension reinforcement in flange = * +

Total Tension reinforcement =

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2.9 Determine the moment of resistance of a T-section having the following section properties,
Width of the flange : 2500 mm Depth of the flange : 150 mm
Width of the rib : 300 mm Effective depth : 800 mm
Area of steel : 8 bars of 25 mm diameter
Grade of concrete : M20 Grade of steel : Fe 415 HYSD bars
Given
Width of the flange = 2500 mm
Depth of the flange = 150 mm
Width of the rib = 300 mm
Effective depth of beam d = 800 mm
Area of steel = 8 bars of 25mm diameter
= 8*( )
2
= 3927 mm
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
Solution
Position of Neutral Axis = 0.48 *

Limiting depth of N.A = IS 456 : Pg 96

= 0.0984
= 0.0984 * 800
= 78.8 mm
= 150 mm
Since , The Neutral axis lies within the flange
Moment of Resistance = 0.48 *
Considering the section to be under-reinforced

Moment of resistance = ( )

= ( )

= [ ]

= 1088.061 kNm
Result
Moment of Resistance = 1088 kNm

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2.10 Calculate the ultimate flexural strength of a T-beam section having the following section
properties,
Width of the flange : 1200 mm
Depth of the flange : 120 mm
Width of the rib : 300 mm
Effective depth : 600 mm
Area of Tension steel : 8 bars of 25 mm diameter
Grade of concrete : M20
Grade of steel : Fe 415 HYSD bars
Given
Width of the flange = 1200 mm
Depth of the flange = 120 mm
Width of the rib = 300 mm
Effective depth of
d = 600 mm
beam
Area of steel = 8 bars of 25mm diameter
= 8*( )
2
= 3927 mm
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2

Solution
Position of Neutral Axis = 0.48 *

Limiting depth of N.A = IS 456 : Pg 96

= 0.2735

= 0.2735 * 600
= 164.10 mm
= 120 mm
Since , The Neutral axis lies outside the flange

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Also =

= 0.2

Also =

= 0.73

Since , and

( ) ( ( ) )
Actual depth of Neutral Axis =

= ( )

= 0.15 * 164.10 + 0.65 * 120

= 102.615 mm
( ) ( ( ) )
=

= 271.60 mm

= 0.45

Moment of Resistance = 0.48 *

= ( ) + ( ) ( )

( ) + ( )
=
( )

= 739.84 kNm

Result
Moment of Resistance = 739.84 kNm

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2.11 A T-Beam has an effective flange width of 2500 mm and depth of the flange 150 mm, width of the
rib 300 mm, effective depth 800 mm. Using M20 concrete and Fe 415 HYSD bars, estimate the area of
tension reinforcement required if the section has to resist a design ultimate moment of 1200 kNm.
Given
Width of the flange = 2500 mm
Depth of the flange = 150 mm
Width of the rib = 300 mm
Effective depth of beam d = 800 mm
Ultimate Moment = 1200 kNm
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
Solution
Moment of Resistance =
Assuming the depth of neutral axis,
Moment of Resistance = ( )
= ( )
= 1989.9 kNm
Area of Steel Reinforcement = 0.48 *
Since

Moment of resistance = ( )

1200 * 106 = ( )

Solving = 4354 mm2

Position of Neutral Axis = 0.48 *

Limiting depth of N.A =

= 0.1092
= 0.1092 * 800
= 87.33 mm
= 150 mm
, The Neutral axis lies within the flange
Result
Area of Reinforcement = 4354 mm2

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2.12 A T-beam has the following cross-sectional details:

Effective Width of the flange : 2000 mm
Thickness of the flange : 150 mm
Width of the rib : 300 mm
Effective depth : 1000 mm
Calculate the limiting or balanced moment capacity of the section and the corresponding area of
tension reinforcement. Assume M20 grade concrete and Fe 415 HYSD bars.
Given
Width of the flange = 2000 mm
Thickness of the flange = 150 mm
Width of the rib = 300 mm
Effective depth of beam d = 1000 mm
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
Solution
Position of Neutral Axis = 0.48 *

Depth of N.A = 0.48

= 0.48 * d
= 0.48 * 1000
= 480 mm

= 150 mm
Since , The Neutral axis lies outside the flange

Also =

= 0.15

Also =

= 0.3125

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Moment of Resistance = 0.48 *

Since , and

= ( ) + ( ) ( )

( ) + ( ) (
=
)

= 2950.6 kNm

Tension Reinforcement = 0.48 *

( )
= * + * +

( )
= [ ] * +

= 9228 mm2

Result
Moment of Resistance = 2950.6 kNm
Area of Reinforcement = 9228 mm2

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ACADEMIC NOTES | STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

UNIT 3

LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF CONCRETE SLAB

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Slabs are flat, horizontal structural element made of reinforced concrete that receive the load and transfer it
through the beams to the columns and to the footings to the soil below. Slabs are used in both load bearing
and framed structures. In load bearing structure, the load is transferred from the slab to the load bearing walls.
Thickness of slab varies from 100 mm to 500 mm. The methods for slab construction vary from each other.
Based on the support condition a slab can be a simply supported slab, cantilever slab or a continuous slab. A
slab can be a floor slab or roof slab. The live load acting on the floor slabs is greater than the roof slabs. Thus,
the floor slabs are heavily reinforced when compared to the roof slabs.

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3.2 TYPES OF SLABS

 Conventional Slab (One way & Two way slab)

 Flat plate & Flat slab
 Waffle (Grid) slab
 Ribbed slab
 Hollow deck slab
 Bubble deck slab
 Hardy slab
 Dome slab
 Pitch roof slab
 Pre-Tensioned & Post-Tensioned slab
 Prefabricated slab
 Arched slab
 Cantilever slab
 Low roof slab
 Sunken slab
 Slab on grade
 Composite slab

Miscellaneous types of slabs:

 Floor slab
 Kitchen slab
 Lofts

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3.2.1 CONVENTIONAL SLAB

The slab which is supported by beams and columns is called conventional slab. In conventional slab the
thickness of the slab is small but the depth of the beam is large. The load is transmitted from slab to beam and
then from beam to column. These types of slabs are provided with reinforcement where horizontal bar is
called main reinforcement and vertical bar is call distribution bar.

Conventional slabs are of two types

 One way slab

 Two way slab

ONE WAY SLAB

One way slab is a conventional horizontal slab rectangular in shape and supported by beams on two of its four
sides. The slabs are supported on beams opposite to each other. Therefore, deflected shape is cylindrical. In
one way slabs the longer span is more than twice of the shorter span. The ratio of longer span to the shorter
span is greater than two. As a result, the shorter span is subjected to bending. The main reinforcements are
provided in the shorter direction to resist bending and the secondary reinforcements are provided in the longer
direction.

TWO WAY SLAB

Two way slabs are also conventional horizontal slab mostly rectangular in shape and supported on four sides
on a beam. In two way slabs the longer span is less than twice of the shorter span. The ratio of longer span to
the shorter span is lesser than two. The deflected shape of the slab is like a dish or saucer shape. In this case,
both the shorter and longer directions are subjected to bending. Therefore, the main reinforcements would be
provided in both directions based on the magnitude of bending. The two way slabs are economical to a size of
6m x 6m. Also, the quantity of steel used in two way slab is more than the one way slab.

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ADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL SLAB

 Easy to construct
 It does not require skilled labours
 Easy to install electrical, mechanical and plumbing services
 The form works are simple.

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL SLAB

 Becomes very deep for higher loads

 During the curing period, the formwork cannot be removed
 The concrete in the tension zone has no structural performance but it is provided to simplify the
construction

APPLICATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL SLAB

 Multi-storey buildings, framed residential apartments etc.,

3.2.2 FLAT PLATE

Unlike Conventional slabs, in flat plates the loads are not transferred from the slabs to the beams. In flat
plates, the loads are transferred directly to the columns. The flat plate system may be one way or two way
depending on the design plan.

ADVANTAGES OF FLAT PLATE

 Simplified formwork since no beams are involved

 The height of the floor can be minimized due to the absence of the beams
 Increased floor to floor height
 The mechanical and electrical installations can be installed easily without bending them
 The flat soffit of the beam is easy to construct

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF FLAT PLATE

 Increased risk for deflection

 Due to absence of the beams, special design considerations should be made to take care of the shear
forces
 Reduced stiffness
 Large spans cannot be constructed
 Brittle partitions like the brick masonry are not suitable for flat plates
 Increased column size

APPLICATIONS OF FLAT PLATE

 Underground parking, multi-storey buildings

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3.2.3 FLAT SLABS

Flat slabs are the modified version of the flat plates with a column head and/or a drop panel cast
monolithically with the slab. There are no beams present in the flat slabs but the drop panels and column
heads will transfer the loads smoothly to the columns. The drop panels are square or rectangular in shape and
increase the shear capacity of the slab. The drop panels add deflection to the slab and thus minimize the
deflections. The column heads are provided below the drop panels and they are mostly sloping to meet the
column dimensions. A flat slab may have either column head or drop panel or both. The flat slabs are mostly
popular in unconventional structures without column symmetry. The colum heads and drop panels act as a
special beam confined to that particular space. However, the formworks become complicated due to the need
for column head and drop panels.

ADVANTAGES OF FLAT SLAB

 The height of the building can be saved

 The floor to floor height can be reduced
 Shorter construction time if big table formwork can be installed easily without bending them

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF FLAT SLABS

 Increased risk for deflection

 Large spans cannot be constructed
 Brittle partitions like the brick masonry are not suitable for flat slabs

APPLICATIONS OF FLAT SLABS

 These types of slabs are used in underground parking, unsymmetrical buildings.

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3.2.4 WAFFLE SLABS OR GRID SLABS

Waffle slabs are light weight slabs with hollow grid-like systems on
its soffit. The hollow grid system reduces the self-weight of the slab
without compromising its structural stability. The grids are spaced at
equal intervals and they transfer the load from above to the beams.
The space between the ribs is sometimes treated as a beam and
reinforced to increase the flexural rigidity of the slab. Due to the light
weight, they can span to long distances with ease. The waffle slabs
may have a grid system or a grider system where the bands of beam
run throughout the slabs. The grid can be or any shape – Square,
Rectangular, Triangular etc.,

ADVANTAGES OF GRID SLAB

 Lighter sections and therefore less self-weight leading to
economic foundations & so the construction materials used
for the slab can be saved
 Long spans can be constructed
 Very economical when modular coordination is followed for the form works
 High load carrying capacity than conventional slabs
 Less use of concrete leads to less CO2 emissions

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF GRID SLAB

 The reduced depth of the slabs between the grids increase the risk of fire transmission
 The construction of waffle slabs is also tedious since they are demanding special and sophisticated
formwork
 The mechanical and electrical installations are very difficult to install because of the complex design in
the soffit
 The height between the floors is increased and thus not economical
 It is not suitable for the buildings subjected to sudden vibrations or constant vibrations
 Not suitable for regions with high wind velocities due to the low self-weight
 Skilled workers are required & Difficult to repair
 High maintenance & Not economical for small projects

APPLICATIONS OF GRID SLAB

 These types of slabs are used in public buildings, museums, airports, etc.,

3.2.5 RIBBED SLAB

Ribbed slabs are very similar to waffle slabs but often mistaken for being the same. A ribbed slab has wide
grids or bands of beams in the soffit of the beam whereas; a waffle slab has deeper corresponding parts. The
ribbed slabs like waffle slabs are flexible, light in section, economical and can be constructed for longer spans.
They have the same advantages and disadvantages of the waffle or grid slab

APPLICATIONS OF RIBBED SLAB

 Public buildings, Museums, galleries.

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3.2.6 HOLLOW DECK / HOLLOW CORE SLAB

Hollow deck slabs are special types of prefabricated concrete slabs that use the fundamentals of the stress
developed in a section for the design. The concrete takes care of the compression while the steel takes care of
the tension. There is no specific use for the concrete in the tension zone other than to provide a solid section.
Taking this principle into account, the hollow deck slab does not provide concrete in the tension zone. It is
provided with minimum concrete to hold the steel reinforcements in place. The hollow deck slab can be
prestressed or non-prestressed.

ADVANTAGES OF HOLLOW DECK SLAB

 Lighter sections and therefore less self-weight leading to economic foundations

 Long spans can be constructed
 The materials used for the slab can be saved
 Prefabrication lead to faster construction
 It can be fully loaded immediately after placing
 It gives a fuller and pleasing appearance from below

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF HOLLOW DECK SLAB

 Not suitable for regions with high wind velocities due to the low self-weight
 Skilled workers are required
 Connections are difficult and tedious in a precast structure
 Cranes are required for the handling of the slabs
 It is time consuming if it is a cast in-situ construction
 Not economical for small projects
 Difficult to repair

APPLICATIONS OF HOLLOW DECK SLAB

 Bridges, wall panels, multi-storey prefabricated buildings

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3.2.7 BUBBLE DECK SLAB

Bubble deck slabs are hollow slabs where the

concrete in the tension zone is replaced high-density
polyethylene or HDPE plastic balls. Bubble deck
slabs use the same principle of the hollow core slab.
The concrete in the tension zone of a section has no
structural importance. The removal of that concrete
will not affect the performance of the structure in
resisting the loads acting on it. Bubble deck slabs
can reduce the amount of concrete in a slab from
40% to 60%. This reduces the dead weight of the
structure and also saves on costs.

ADVANTAGES OF BUBBLE DECK SLAB

 Lighter sections and therefore less self-weight leading to economic foundations
 Long spans can be constructed
 Very economical when formworks are repeated for every floors
 High resistance to explosions
 Less use of concrete leads to less CO2 emissions
 The recycled plastics are used thus reducing the plastics in the landfill

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF BUBBLE DECK SLAB

 The construction of bubble deck slabs is tedious since they demand special and sophisticated
formworks
 It is not suitable for buildings subjected to sudden vibrations or constant vibrations
 Not suitable for regions with high wind velocities due to low self-weight
 Skilled workers are required & Not economical for small projects
 Deflection is more & Punching shear capacity is less
 Difficult to repair

APPLICATIONS OF BUBBLE DECK SLAB

 Public and high rise buildings

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3.2.8 HARDY SLAB

Hardy slabs are special types of slabs consisting of hardy bricks placed in a uniform fashion inside it. The
hardy bricks are hollow blocks made of concrete. The depth of the hardy bricks is usually at least 200 mm.
Therefore, the depth of the slab is increased. The formworks are placed over which the hardy bricks are placed
in rows with space between them. This space between the hardy blocks is treated as small beams.
Reinforcements are placed within these ribs and concrete is poured and the slab is cast monolithically. It is
mostly used in regions of high temperature

APPLICATIONS OF HARDY SLAB

Hospitals, office buildings, residential buildings, public buildings

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3.2.9 DOME SLAB

Dome slabs are hemispherical in shape in

shape and are used mostly to enhance the view
of a structure. In ancient times, most structures
were built in such a way that only compressive
forces act on the structure. Before the
invention of the steel, there were no tensile
materials known to man to resists tension.
Therefore, the load was transferred through
axial compression as in domes. In the modern
era, the discovery of steel has led to thin
sections of domes.

APPLICATIONS OF HARDY SLAB

Monumental buildings, Museums, Meditation halls, galleries, religious structures

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3.2.10 PITCHED ROOF SLAB

The reinforced concrete pitched roofs are sloping slabs

mostly preferred in high rainfall regions. The most
common shape of a pitched roof is the triangular shape.
Proper designing must be made beforehand to ensure the
smooth construction of the pitched roofs.

PRECAUTIONS

 The mix design of concrete should not be tampered

 Proper formworks with sufficient support should be
provided
 The concrete has to be placed from bottom to top
 The tiles, if placed on the slab shall be custom made to reduce wastage
 If tiles are not placed, weather protection coats should be used

APPLICATIONS OF DOME SLAB

Resorts, public buildings and restaurants

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3.2.11 POST-TENSIONED SLAB

Prestressed slabs are commonly used in the

construction of prefabricated buildings. Post
tensioned prestressed slabs have ducts that carry high
strength steel tendons in addition to the conventional
reinforcement. The steel tendons are prestressed and
anchored at the ends after the concrete slabs have
hardened. This is called post tensioning.

The post tensioned slabs are mostly precast and are

of various shapes. Post tensioned slabs are widely
used because of their ability to be cast in a shorter
period of time.

3.2.12 PRE-TENSIONED SLAB

Pretensioned prestressed slabs are prestressed before the concrete hardens. The high strength tendons are
pulled and the slab is casted. After the slab has sufficiently hardened, the prestress strands are cut loose and
the stress us transferred to the slab. Pretensioned slabs are similar to post tensioned slabs except for the
prestressing part.

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3.2.12 PREFABRICATED SLAB

Prefabricated slabs are cast in the industry or site

and transported to the place of construction. The
prefabricated slabs can be of the following types

 Pre – tensioned slabs

 Post – tensioned slabs
 Hollow core slabs
 Ribbed slabs

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3.3 ONE WAY SLAB & ITS BEHAVIOUR

Aspect Ratio > 2

One way slab is a conventional horizontal slab rectangular in shape and supported by beams on two of its four
sides. The slabs are supported on beams opposite to each other. Therefore, deflected shape is cylindrical. In
one way slabs the longer span is more than twice of the shorter span. The ratio of longer span to the shorter
span is greater than two.

As a result, the shorter span is subjected to bending. The main reinforcements are provided in the shorter
direction to resist bending and the secondary reinforcements are provided in the longer direction.

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3.4 TWO WAY SLAB

Aspect Ratio < 2

Two way slabs are also conventional horizontal slab mostly

rectangular in shape and supported on four sides on a beam. In
two way slabs the longer span is less than twice of the shorter
span. The ratio of longer span to the shorter span is lesser than
two. The deflected shape of the slab is like a dish or saucer
shape. In this case, both the shorter and longer directions are
subjected to bending. Therefore, the main reinforcements would
be provided in both directions based on the magnitude of
bending. The two way slabs are economical to a size of 6m x
6m. Also, the quantity of steel used in two way slab is more than
the one way slab.

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3.4.1 TORSION REINFORCEMENT

Torsion reinforcement shall be provided at any corner

where the slab is simply supported on both edges
meeting at that corner and is prevented from lifting
unless the consequences of cracking are negligible. It
shall consist of top and bottom reinforcement, each
with layer of bars placed parallel to the sides of the
slab and extending from the edges a minimum distance
of one fifth of the shorter span. The area of
reinforcement per unit width in each of these four
layers shall be three quarters of the area required for
the maximum mid-span moment per unit width in the
slab. Torsion reinforcement equal to half that described
above shall be provided at a corner contained by edges
over only one of which the slab is continuous.

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3.1 Design a simply supported RCC slab for an office floor having clear dimensions of 4m by
10m with 230mm walls all-round. Adopt M20 concrete and Fe415 steel HYSD bars.

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3.2 Design a two way slab for an office floor of size 3.5m x 4.5m with discontinuous and simply
supported edges on all the sides with corner prevented from lifting and supporting a service
load of 4 kN/m2. Use M20 concrete and Fe415 steel

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3.5 CIRCULAR SLAB

Circular slabs are extensively used during the last decade in many engineering applications due to
architectural and/or structural needs. They may be floor and/or roof of building, halls, water tanks, silos,
bunkers, etc., hence, many researchers devoted their studies for this field. The simply supported and fixed
edge circular floors under uniformly distributed loads represent the most popular practical cases, thus, they are
considered here. The deflection shape of circular slabs likes a saucer which produces stresses in radial and
circumferential directions that necessitates steel bars in these directions. Practically provision of
reinforcements in these directions is difficult due to the difficulty of bending the steel bars, as well as the
congestion in the central region of the floor, where maximum moments occurred.

3.2 PURPOSES OF CIRCULAR SLAB

 Roof of a room or hall circular in plan

 Floor of circular water tank or tower
 Roof of pump house constructed above tube well
 Roof of traffic control post at the intersection of roads, etc.

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3.5.1 BEHAVIOR OF CIRCULAR SLAB

The bending of circular slab is essentially different from a rectangular slab where bending takes place in
distinctly two perpendicular directions along the two spans. When a circular slab simply supported at edges is
loaded with uniformly distributed load, it bends in the form of saucer, due to which stresses are developed
both in radial as well as in circumferential directions. The tensile radial and circumferential stresses develop
towards the convex side of the saucer, and hence reinforcement should be at the convex face of the slab.
Theoretically, reinforcement should be provided both in the radial as well as circumferential directions, but
this arrangement would cause congestion and anchoring problem at the centre of the slab. Hence and
alternative method of providing reinforcement is adopted:

 Reinforcement is provided in the form of mesh of bars having equal area of cross-section in both the
directions, the area being equal to that required for the bigger of the radial and circumferential
moments
 However, if the stresses near the edge are not negligible, or if the edge is fixed, radial and
circumferential reinforcement near the edge becomes essential.

3.5.2 ANALYSIS OF CIRCULAR SLAB

The exact analysis of the slab, based on theory of elasticity and assuming Poisson’s ratio equal to zero.
Sometimes, empirical formulae are used for bending moments and shear force etc. Some of the conditions
considered while the analysis of circular slabs is,

1. Slab freely supported at edges and carrying UDL

2. Slab fixed at edges and carrying UDL
3. Slab simply supported at edges, with load W uniformly distributed along the circumference of a
concentric circle
4. Slab simply supported at edges, with UDL inside a concentric circle
5. Slab simply supported at the edges with a central hole and carrying UDL
6. Slab simply supported at the edges with a central hole and carrying W distributed along the
circumference of a concentric circle

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SLABS SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT EDGES AND CARRYING UDL

Circumferential Moments

( ) =

( ) =

= ( ) at any radius r

Radial Moments

( ) =

( ) =
= ( ) at any radius r

Radial Shear force

=

SLABS FIXED AT EDGES AND CARRYING UDL

Circumferential Moments

( ) =

( ) =
= ( ) at any radius r

Radial Moments

( ) =

( ) =

= ( ) at any radius r

Shear force
=

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SLABS PARTIALLY FIXED AT THE EDGES

Circumferential Moments

( ) =

( ) =

Radial Moments

( ) =

( ) =

SLABS SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE EDGES WITH LOAD W UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED

ALONG THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CONCENTRIC CIRCLE

For r < b
( ) ( )

= * ( ) ( ) +

=
For r > b

= * ( ) ( ) ( ) +

= * ( ) ( ) ( ) +

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SLABS SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT EDGES WITH UDL INSIDE A CONCENTRIC CIRCLE

For r < b

* ( )
=
+

= * ( ) +

( ) = * ( ) +

( ) =

( ) = * ( ) +

( ) =

For r > b

= * ( ) ( )+

* ( )
=
( )+

( ) =

( ) = * +

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SLABS SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT EDGES WITH CENTRAL HOLE AND CARRYING UDL

= * ( ) ( ) ( )+

* ( ) ( )
=
( )+

SLABS SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT EDGES WITH CENTRAL HOLE AND CARRYING W

DISTRIBUTED ALONG THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CONCENTRIC CIRCLE

For r < c

= ( )* ( ) +

= ( )* ( ) +

For r > c

= [ ( ) ( ( ) ) ]

= [ ( ) ( ( ) ) ]

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3.3 A circular room has 5m diameter from inside. Design a circular roof slab for a room to
carry a super imposed load of 3750 N/mm2. Assume the slab is simply supported at edges.
Use M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Given
Diameter of the slab l = 5m = 5000 mm
Live load q = 3750 N/mm2
Grade of concrete fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel fy = 415 N/mm2
End condition = Slab is simply supported on edges
Solution
Depth of slab
Since, IS 456 : 2000 has not given any recommendation for circular slab, we can assume
that span to depth ratio of a circular slab equals

Span to effective depth ratio = IS 456 : Pg 37

= 26.667

d =

d = 188 mm
Effective depth of slab d 190 mm
Assume Effective Cover d’ = 30 mm
Overall Depth of the slab D = d + d’
= 190 + 30
D = 220 mm
Load Calculation
Dead load of the slab g = L*b*D*
g = 1 * 1 * 0.22 * 25 = 5.5 kN/m2
Live load on the slab q = (Given) = 3.75 kN/m2
Floor Finish = (Assumption) = 1 kN/m2
Total Load (w) = 10.25 kN/m2
Factored load (wu) = 15.375 kN/m2

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Shear force and Bending Moment

Radial Shear Force = = = 19.21 kN

Circumferential
= = 0
Shear Force
Circumferential
( ) = = = 18.02 kNm
Moment at centre
Circumferential
( ) = = = 12.01 kNm
Moment at edges
Radial Moment at
( ) = = = 18.02 kNm
centre
Radial Moment at
( ) = = = 0
edges
Check for Depth of the slab
Ultimate Moment MU =
=

= 6529
d = √

Effective depth of the slab required = 80.80 mm

i.e 190 mm > 81 mm

Depth provided is safe for the moment
Design of Main Reinforcements
Moment of resistance = 0.87 fy Ast d ( )

= 0.87 * 415 * * 190 ( )

= 270.7 mm2

Assuming 8 mm ø bars Spacing = 180 mm c/c

= 279 mm2

Provide 8 mm ø bars @ 180 mm c/c as Main reinforcements in the form of mesh

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Design of Circumferential Reinforcements

Since circumferential stresses are there, slip in reinforcement may occur. To avoid this,
circumferential reinforcements can be provided.

Assume 8mm ø diameter bars as circumferential reinforcement.

Effective depth of the second layer of reinforcement, d = 190 – 4 – 8 – 4 = 174 mm

Moment of resistance = 0.87 fy Ast d ( )

= 0.87 * 415 * * 174 ( )

= 196 mm2

Assuming 8 mm ø bars Spacing = 250 mm c/c

= 201 mm2

Number of bars n =

=
( )

n = 5.5
n 6 bars
Provide 6# of 8 mm ø bars @ 250 mm c/c as Circumferential reinforcements
Check for Shear

Nominal shear stress = IS 456 : Pg 72

= 0.101 N/mm2

Permissible shear stress = IS 456 : Pg 72

D k
For D = 210 mm, ( )
200 1.2
k = ( )
( )
(By Interpolation)
225 1.15

k = 1.18

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Percentage of tensile
= IS 456 : Pg 73
reinforcement
=

= 0.147

From Table 19, = 0.28 N/mm2 IS 456 : Pg 73

Permissible shear stress = 1.18 * 0.28

= 0.33 N/mm2

, The condition satisfies and the slab is safe in shear

Check for Deflection

Actual Deflection =

= 26.31

Permissible Deflection = ( )

( ) = 20 IS 456 : Pg 37

= 0.58
= 0.58*415
= 240 N/mm2
For = 2 IS 456 : Pg 38
= 1 IS 456 : Pg 39
= 1 IS 456 : Pg 39

Permissible Deflection = ( )

= 20 * 2 * 1 * 1

Permissible Deflection = 40

, The condition satisfies and the slab is safe in deflection

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3.4 A circular room has 2.8 m radius. Design the floor slab for fixed edge condition to support a
live load of 3 kN/m2 and finish load of 1.5 kN/m2. Check shear and deflection of the slab.
Given
Radius of the slab = 2.8m = 2800 mm
Live load q = 3 kN/m2
Finish load = 1.5 kN/m2
Grade of concrete (Assume) fck = 25 N/mm2
Grade of steel (Assume) fy = 415 N/mm2
End condition = Slab is fixed on edges
Solution
Depth of slab
Since, IS 456 : 2000 has not given any recommendation for circular slab, we can assume
that span to depth ratio of a circular slab equals

Span of the slab l = 5600 mm

Span to effective depth ratio = IS 456 : Pg 37

= 26.667

d =

Effective depth of slab d = 210 mm

Assume Effective Cover d’ = 25 mm
Overall Depth of the slab D = d + d’
= 210 + 25
D = 235 mm
Load Calculation
Dead load of the slab g = L*b*D*
g = 1 * 1 * 0.235 * 25 = 5.875 kN/m2
Live load on the slab q = (Given) = 3 kN/m2
Floor Finish = (Given) = 1.5 kN/m2
Total Load (w) = 10.375 kN/m2
Factored load (wu) = 15.563 kN/m2

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Shear force and Bending Moment

Radial Shear Force = = = 21.79 kN

Circumferential
= = 0
Shear Force
Circumferential
( ) = = = 7.63 kNm
Moment at centre
Circumferential
( ) = 0 = 0 = 0
Moment at edges
Radial Moment at
( ) = = = 7.63 kNm
centre
Radial Moment at
( ) = = = - 15.25 kNm
edges
Check for Depth of the slab
Ultimate Moment MU =
=

= 5525.36
d = √

Effective depth of the slab required = 74.33 mm

i.e 210 mm > 74 mm

Depth provided is safe for the moment
Design of Main Reinforcements
Moment of resistance = 0.87 fy Ast d ( )

= 0.87 * 415 * * 210 ( )

= 205.3 mm2

Assuming 8 mm ø bars Spacing = 240 mm c/c

= 209 mm2

Provide 8 mm ø bars @ 240 mm c/c as Main reinforcements in the form of mesh

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Design of Circumferential Reinforcements

Since circumferential stresses are there, slip in reinforcement may occur. To avoid this,
circumferential reinforcements can be provided.
Assume 8mm ø diameter bars as circumferential reinforcement.
Effective depth of the second layer of reinforcement, d = 210 – 4 – 8 – 4 = 194 mm

Moment of resistance = 0.87 fy Ast d ( )

= 0.87 * 415 * * 194 ( )

= 108.8 mm2

Assuming 8 mm ø bars Spacing = 300 mm c/c

= 168 mm2

Number of bars n =

=
( )

n = 4.15
n 5 bars
Provide 5# of 8 mm ø bars @ 300 mm c/c as Circumferential reinforcements
Check for Shear

Nominal shear stress = IS 456 : Pg 72

= 0.104 N/mm2

Permissible shear stress = IS 456 : Pg 72

D k
For D = 235 mm, ( )
225 1.15
k = ( )
( )
(By Interpolation)
250 1.1

k = 1.13
Percentage of tensile
= IS 456 : Pg 73
reinforcement
=

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= 0.099
From Table 19, = 0.28 N/mm2 IS 456 : Pg 73
Permissible shear stress = 1.13 * 0.28
= 0.316 N/mm2
, The condition satisfies and the slab is safe in shear
Check for Deflection

Actual Deflection =

= 26.67

Permissible Deflection = ( )

( ) = 20 IS 456 : Pg 37

= 0.58

= 0.58*415

= 240 N/mm2

For = 1.7 IS 456 : Pg 38

= 1 IS 456 : Pg 39

= 1 IS 456 : Pg 39

Permissible Deflection = ( )

= 20 * 1.7 * 1 * 1

Permissible Deflection = 40

, The condition satisfies and the slab is safe in deflection

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3.6 STAIR CAASE

Stairs is a structure designed to bridge a large vertical distance by

dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairs may
be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces
connected at angles. Types of stairs include staircases, ladders, and
escalators. Stair Cases are generally provided connecting successive
floors of a building and in small buildings they are the only means
of access between the floors. A staircase or stairway is one or more
flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and includes
landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. A
stairwell is a compartment extending vertically through a building
in which stairs are placed.

3.6.1 COMPONENTS OF STAIR CASE

STEP: It is a combination of tread and riser which

permits ascent and descent from one floor to
another.

TREAD: The upper horizontal portion of the step

over which foot is placed during ascending or
descending a stairway is known as tread.

RISE: The vertical height between two consecutive

treads is known as rise.

RISER: The vertical member of the step is known

as riser. It is used to support and connect successive
treads.

LANDING: A horizontal platform between two

successive flight of a stair is called landing. Landing
is used as a resting place during use of the stair. It
facilitates the change of direction of the flight.
Landing which extends for full width of the staircase
is known as half-space landing. Landing extending
for only half the width of staircase is known as
quarter space landing.

NOSING: It is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of the riser. Nosing is usually rounded to give
good aesthetic effect to the treads and make staircase convenient and easy to use.

GOING: The horizontal distance between without the faces of two consecutive risers is known as going of
steps.

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FLIGHT: A continuous series of steps without any break between landings or landing and flooring is known
as flight.

HEAD ROOM: The vertical height between the tread of one flight and the ceiling of the overhead
construction is known as head room. Head room should be sufficient so as not to cause any difficulty to the
persons using the stair. Head room is also known as head way.

HAND RAIL: It is an inclined rail provided at convenient height over balustrades. The inclination of the rail
is parallel to the slope of the stair. It serves as a guard rail and provides assistance to the users of the stair.
Hand rails can be molded in so many architectural forms. It also acts as a protective bar.

BALUSTER: It is an individual vertical member made of timber, metal or masonry and fixed between string
and hand rail to provide support to the hand rail.

BALUSTRADE: Framework made from series of balusters and hand rail is known as balustrade. It is also
known as barrister.

PITCH OR SLOPE: The vertical angle made by nosing line of the stair with the horizontal.

RUN: The total length of the stair in horizontal plane including lengths of landing is known as run of the stair.

SOFFIT: The undersurface of the stair is known as soffit. It is either finished with plaster or covered with a
ceiling.

SCOTIA: It is a sort of additional moulding provided under the nosing or tread to beautify the step of
elevation.

NEWEL-POST: It is a vertical timber or steel post provided at the head, foot or at point where the balustrade
changes its direction. It is also used for supporting the hand rail.

STRINGS OR STRINGERS: These are the sloping wooden members of a stair, used to support the end of
the steps. Stringers may be two types., Cut or open type and closed or housed type. In cut or open type, the
upper edge is cut exactly to size to receive the ends of steps. In closed or housed type, the ends of the steps are
housed into the stringers.

WAIST: The thickness of the RCC slab over which steps of RCC rest, is known as waist.

LINE OF NOSING: It is an imaginary sloping line parallel to the slope of the stair and touching the nosing
of all the treads.

WALKING LINE: It is the approximate line on the stair, adopted by the people during the use of the stair.
This line is located about 40cm from the centre of the hand rail.

SPANDREL: It is triangular framing under the outside string of an open string stair.

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3.6.2 TYPES OF STAIR CASE

Depending upon the various arrangement of steps, stairs can be classified into the following types:

 Straight stair
 Dog-legged stair
 Open newel stair
 Geometrical stair
 Circular stair
 Spiral stair
 Quarter-turn stair
 Bifurcated stair
 Tread riser stair
 Cantilever stair

STRAIGHT STAIR
In these types of stairs, all the steps are arranged continuously along in one direction. One flight may be split
into one or more than one flight by interposing a landing. This stair can be used where narrow and long space
is available for a staircase such as entrance, porch etc.

STRAIGHT RUN STAIR STRAIGHT RUN STAIR WITH MID LANDING

DOG-LEGGED STAIR
This stair type consists of two straight flights of steps with direct turns between them. Dog-legged stair is very
useful where the total width of the stair is just twice the width of the steps.

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OPEN NEWEL STAIR

This type of stairs consists of two or more flights arranging a well or opening between the backward and
forward flights. When all the steps are difficult to arrange in two flights, a short flight of 3 to 6 steps may be
provided along the direction perpendicular to the hall. Open newel stair is mostly adopted in the lift area.

GEOMETRICAL STAIR

This is another type of open newel stair where the open well between the forward and the backward flight is
curved. This stair may contain different geometrical shapes. Here the change in direction is achieved by using
winders.

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CIRCULAR STAIR

In these types of stairs, all the steps radiate from a newel or well hole,
in the form of winders. The circular stair is adopted at the backside of a
building to access its various floors.

SPIRAL STAIR

The spiral stair is very similar to circular stair. It consists of

individual steps or treads, connecting to a centre column. The
overall diameter of the stair may range from 1 to 2.5m.

QUARTER-TURN STAIR

The quarter-turn stair can be defined as the stairs that are turned at
90degrees with the help of level landing.

BIFURCATED STAIR

These types of stairs are provided in modern public buildings as well as residential buildings. In this stair, the
flight is so arranged that there is a wide flight at the start which is sub-divided into narrow flights at the mid-
landing. The narrow flights start from either side of the mid landing.

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TREAD RISER STAIR

These types of stairs consists of tread and riser without stingers or waist slab.

CANTILEVER STAIR

These types of stairs consists of tread and riser without stingers or waist slab.

3.6.3 LOADS ON STAIR CASE

The various types of loads to be resisted by the stair cases are grouped under dead and live loads.

a) Dead load: Self weight of the stair slab (waist slab), Tread and risers, finishes.
b) Live load: Specified in IS 875 : 1987 (Part II)

For residential building: UDL of 2 to 3 kN/m2 depending upon users

For Public Buildings: UDL of 5 kN/m2 is specified in the code

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3.6.4 EFFECTIVE SPAN OF STAIRS

When the stair flight is supported at the ends by landing beams, the effective span is the projected horizontal
distance between the centre lines of landing beams. The effective span of stairs without stringer beam shall be
taken as the following horizontal distances as per IS : 456 code clause 33.1.

a) Where supported at top and bottom risers by beams spanning parallel with the risers, the distance
centre to centre of beams.
b) Where spanning on to the edge of a landing slab, which spans parallel with the risers, a distance equal
to the going of the stairs plus at each end either half the width of the landing or one meter, whichever
is smaller.
c) Where the landing slab span in the same direction as the stairs, they shall be considered as acting
together to form a single slab and the span determined as the distance centre to centre of the supporting
beams or walls, the going being measured horizontally.

3.6.5 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADING ON STAIRS

The distribution of loads on stairs and landing slabs depends upon the type of spanning of the stair flight and
the landing slab. In the case of stairs with open wells, where span partly crossing at right angles occur, the
load on areas common to any two such spans may be taken as one half in each direction. Where flights or
landings are embedded into walls for a length of not less than 110 mm, are designed to span in the direction of
the flight, a 150 mm strip may be deducted from the loaded area and the effective breadth of the section
increased by 75mm for purpose of design.

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3.5 Design a dog legged stair for a building in which the vertical distance between floors is 3.6m.
The stair hall measures 2.5 m x 5 m. Live load may be taken as 25 kN/m2. Use M20 grade
concrete with Fe415 HYSD bars.
Given
Distance between the floors = 3.6 m = 3600 mm
Stair hall dimension = 2.5m x 5m
Grade of concrete
fck = 25 N/mm2
(Assume)
Grade of steel (Assume) fy = 415 N/mm2
Type of stair = Dog-legged stair
Solution
Specification of Stair case
Since it is a dog-legged type, number of flights can be taken as 2

Number of flights = 2

Height of each flight = = 1800 mm

Tread T = 250 mm (Assume)

Rise R = 150 mm (Assume)

Number of steps n =

n = = 12 steps

Let us provide 11 number of steps and last step will be continued as landing

Clearance between flight = (Assume)

Width of the flight = = 1125 mm

Length of going n * T = 11 * 250 = 2750 mm

Assuming the landing is provided at both the ends of staircase,

Width of each landing = = 1125 mm

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Effective span & Depth of waist slab

Assuming the stair is supported on landing beams on each side of width 300 mm
Effective span l = C/C dis between the beams

l = = 3050 mm

= 20 IS 456 : Pg 37

d = = 152.5 mm

Effective depth of waist slab d 155 mm

Effective cover to the slab d’ = 25 mm (Assume)
Overall depth of the slab D = d + d’ = 155 + 25
D = 180 mm
Load Calculation
Self-weight of waist slab = L*b*D*
= 1 * 1 * 0.18 * 25 = 4.5 kN/m2
Self-weight of slab in √
w =
horizontal orientation
√ = 5.25 kN/m2
w =

Self-weight of steps = [ ]

= [ ] = 0.47 kN/m2

Self-weight of steps / m length =

= = 1.88 kN/m2

Floor Finish = (Assume) = 1 kN/m2

Total dead load g = 5.25 + 1.88 +1 = 8.13 kN/m2
Live load on the slab q = (Given) = 2.5 kN/m2
Total Load (w) = 10.63 kN/m2
Factored load (wu) = 15.95 kN/m2

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Shear force and Bending Moment

Shear Force = = = 24.32 kN

Bending Moment = = = 18.55 kNm

Check for Depth of the slab

Ultimate Moment MU =
=

= 6721.01
d = √

Effective depth of the slab required = 81.98 mm

i.e 155 mm > 82 mm

Depth provided is safe for the moment
Design of Main Reinforcements
Moment of resistance = 0.87 fy Ast d ( )

= 0.87 * 415 * * 155 ( )

= 347.6 mm2
Assuming 10 mm ø bars Spacing = 220 mm c/c
= 357 mm2
Provide 10 mm ø bars @ 220 mm c/c as Main reinforcements
Design of Distribution Reinforcements
= 0.12% Ag

= 216 mm2
Assuming 8 mm ø bars Spacing = 230 mm c/c
= 218 mm2
Provide 8 mm ø bars @ 230 mm c/c as distribution reinforcements

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UNIT 4

LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF COLUMNS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Among the all-structural members, the design of columns is very important yet the design of columns is much
neglected. This importance of structural nature of column is because if any other structural member say beams
or slabs fails, it will cause only a local failure in that particular portion of the structure. Whereas, failure of a
column means that particular column which has failed will have to be borne by the adjacent columns, hence it
will give loads on the adjacent columns beyond their design limit. As due to this fact it may start a chain
reaction of failures in columns and subsequently the whole structure may collapse. As in the framed structured
building that is in the modern-day construction the frames are formed by networks of columns and beams.
Due to all this reason only even if vertical or gravity loadings are considered the design of columns stands to
be of much importance than any other structural members. Among the all-structural members, the design of
columns is very important yet the design of columns is much neglected.

4.2 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC) COLUMNS

• R.C Columns in a structure are vertical elements with the primary function of transmitting the dead
and live loads from beams, floors and roofs to the foundations.
• IS 456-2000, defines the column as a compression member, with an effective length not exceeding
three times the least lateral dimension.
• IS 456-2000, defines the Pedestal as a compression member, with an effective length not exceeding 3
times the least lateral dimension and Other Horizontal dimension D shall not exceed 4 times of b
• IS 456-2000, defines the wall as a vertical compression member, whose effective Height H to
thickness t (least lateral dimension) shall not exceed 30. The larger horizontal dimension i.e, the length
of the wall L is more than 4t

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4.3 OTHER FORMS OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

• STRUT : Members in a direction such as those in a trussed frame work.

• PEDESTAL : Vertical structural member of a Building Construction and it is
used to transfer a load from Column to Footing.
• BEAM – COLUMN : Structural member subjected to axial compression & bending
moment.

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4.4 FAILURE MODES OF COLUMN

Types of column failure depend on the type of structural system and columns can fail in different [Link]
column is the main element that carries the vertical loads to the foundation. Failure of a column could lead to
the failure of the whole structure. Therefore, the failure of columns shall be avoided than any other element.
Further, the failure of the column could lead to the progressive collapse of the structure. Therefore, it is very
important to identify the critical column and pay attention to them during design and construction.

• The following types of column failure could be identified

• Pure Compression Failure

• Combined stress failure
• Buckling Failure
• Shear Failure
• Failure due to Lack of Confinement Reinforcement
• Torsional Failures
• Failures due to Construction Defects
• Failures due to errors in the Construction

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4.4.1 PURE COMPRESSION FAILURE

• The column is an element that transfers the weight

of a structure as axial stress to the foundation or
supporting element.

• Concrete is capable of carrying the compressive load

is dominant in carrying loads whereas in other
elements such as beams compressive stress is taken
only by part of the section.

• Reinforcement is also provided to columns where it

is not possible concrete to carry the whole load or as nominal reinforcements.

• The column can fail in compress due to the increase of the axial stress than its capacity.

• These types of failure could be due to the following reasons.

• Reinforcement and concrete have certain capacity based on their amount and area of the section. If
axial stress is greater than that capacity column will fail in compression.

• Further, the reinforcement and concrete have their own strain that they can bear. As per the
standards, concrete is capable of carrying a strain up to 0.0035 and steel starts yielding at a strain of
0.002 and it can increase greater than the concrete. When the axial stress exceeds a certain amount
resulting in concrete strain greater than 0.0035 concrete will fail suddenly. It will be a sudden
crushing of concrete.

• If the section is sufficiently reinforced, it will provide warnings before these types of column failure

4.4.2 COMBINED STRESS FAILURE

• Concrete columns are subjected to bending moments in addition to

the axial forces due to the eccentric moment generated due to the
unbalance loads.

• Bending stress and axial compression stress are added together to

get the final stress in the section.

• It will not be uniform stress. However, failure of the column will be

based on the above criteria discussed under the pure compression
failure.

• The most important thing that the designer should consider in the
design is the possible load combination and alternative loading
effects.

• When there are significant deviations in the spans, we need to be alert about the design

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4.4.3 BUCKLING FAILURE

• Mainly, the buckling failure can be identified as a

failure of the design as we consider the buckling effect
in the design. If the designer aware of these types of
column failures, he could attend this.

• The additional bending moment of the column,

slenderness of the column is considered in the design.

• Further, the effective height of the column is

considered based on its pattern of bucking.

• Buckling failure, the name itself provides the idea

about the mode of failure. Therefore, we consider it in
the design. Buckling failure is the other basic mode of
failure of columns in addition to crushing failure of
columns.

• We provide links to columns to avoid buckling. It is the

basic idea for providing links to the columns other than
for as shear reinforcements.

4.4.4 SHEAR FAILURE

• Lateral loads in a structure are carrying by

vertical elements such as columns and
shear walls.

• When there are no shear walls, columns

carry these lateral loads. If no adequate
shear links these types of column failure
could occur.

• Lateral loads are generated by winds,

earthquake loads, from retaining
structures, etc.

• Shear links are provided to columns based

on the shear forces excreted on them.
Further, the size of the columns is increased in the direction of shear to increase the shear capacity.

• In general, failure of columns due to shear can be identified as the failure of design. Designers should
have provided adequate shear links or sections to carry the shear forces.

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4.4.5 FAILURE DUE TO LACK OF CONFINEMENT REINFORCEMENT

• Vertical element subjected to cyclic loadings subjected to failure of this nature.

• Failure causes mainly due to the lack of links in the area where there are higher shear forces.

• In structural elements such as beams and columns, higher stresses are generated near the connections.

• Lack of links in these areas causes structural failures when cyclic loadings are applied.

4.4.6 TORSION FAILURE

• There is a probability of columns subjecting to torsional moments.

• Usually, columns are designed for axial, bending, and shear

forces. However, due to the irregularities in the structure, the
torsional behavior of the column can be observed.

• Columns are torsionally rigid when they are compared with the
beam as they have reinforcement around the section and links are
provided at closer spacings.

• However, if the torque exceeds the limiting values, columns could

be failed in torsion.

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4.4.7 FAILURE DUE TO CONSTRUCTION DEFECTS

• Columns could fail due to the

construction defects. For example,
improperly treated honeycomb in a
column could lead to a failure when the
loads are applied. These types of
column failure can be avoided if
attended with much care.

• Cavities inside the column that were not

filled properly with construction ground
reduce the compressive area of the
column. As a result it axial capacity will
be reduced.

• Further, cavities inside the column could lead concrete to crack. It will open the reinforcement to the
environment leading the corrosion of reinforcements.

• Similar instances could cause failure.

4.4.8 FAILURE DUE TO ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION

• There may be many errors that could happen in construction and they also can categorize under types
of column failure.
• Employing qualified engineer to the project and close supervision of construction work will minimize
these types of column failure.
• Mistakenly reduce the bar diameter
• Construct an incorrect column in the location
• Changes in the grade of concrete
• Lack of strength in the concrete due to the failure of the concrete supplier.

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4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMN

Column

Based on Material Based on Shape Based on Loading Based on Reinforcement Based on Slenderness Ratio

Eccentric
RCC Column Square Column Axial Column Tied Column Short Column
Column

Rectangular Uniaxial
Steel Column Spiral Column Long Column
Column Column

Circular Bi-axial Composite

Timber Column
Column Column Column

Hexagonal
Stone Column
Column

T, L or +
Brick Column
Shaped Column

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE COLUMN

R.С.С. columns are used for mostly all types of buildings and other R.С.С. structures like tanks, bridges etc

STEEL COLUMN

The column which is made from steel is known as steel column. There are huge trends in steel structure
construction in the world

TIMBER COLUMN

A column which is made from timber is known as timber column. Timber columns are popular in the
previous century. Timber is mostly seen in the old building because at that time it is only construction
materials that are easily available. The timer is a strong and durable construction material if it is given proper
treatment. Timber seasoning is done to remove the moisture from wood which provides it strength and
reduces weight.

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BRICK COLUMN

Brick masonry types of columns are generally used in the load–bearing structures. It plays a vital role in
supporting and increasing the stability of the masonry structure. Sometimes, the construction of brick masonry
columns over the concrete column increases its aesthetic appearance. Brick masonry column may have
different cross-sections like round, rectangle or square, or elliptical.

STONE COLUMN

The types of columns in which are made by using stones and rubble are known as the stone column. There are
most used to increase the aesthetic appearance of the house.

SQUARE & RECTANGULAR COLUMN

Square or rectangular columns are mostly used

in building construction. These types of
columns are economically good and easy to
construct because of it’s easy shuttering and
reinforcement placement.

CIRCULAR COLUMN

Circular columns are mostly used in piling and

elevation of the buildings for aesthetic
purposes. In circular columns, 6 steel bars are
used as reinforcement. Its bending resistance is
usually higher than square or rectangular
column. Other than buildings, circular columns
are also used as bridge pillars due to good deflection resistance.

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L TYPE COLUMN

L type columns are used in boundary wall

construction and in the turning of metro rail or
in flyover construction.

T TYPE COLUMN

T type column has same feature as square/

rectangular column and is mostly used in bridge
and retaining wall construction.

Y TYPE COLUMN

These types of columns are mostly used in bridge and flyover construction

AXIAL COLUMN

When the resultant of the load coincides with the centroid of the cross-section of a column, it is called axially
loaded or concentrically loaded column. These types of columns rarely used in construction.

ECCENTRIC COLUMN:

When the resultant of the load does not coincide with the centroid of the cross-section of a column, it is called
axially loaded or eccentrically loaded column.

UNIAXIAL COLUMN:

When the eccentric load acts on either X-axis or Y axis is called uniaxially eccentrically loaded column

BIAXIAL COLUMN:

When the eccentric load does not act on either X-axis or Y-axis it is called biaxially eccentrically loaded
column.

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TIED COLUMN

Main longitudinal bars are confined within closely spaced lateral ties.

SPIRAL COLUMN

Main longitudinal bars are confined within closely spaced and continuously wound spiral reinforcements.

COMPOSITE COLUMN

Longitudinal reinforcements is in the form of structural steel section or pipes with or without longitudinal
bars.

SHORT COLUMN

Slenderness ratio (Lex /D or Ley/b) is less than 12

LONG COLUMN

Slenderness ratio (Lex /D or Ley/b) is greater than 12

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4.6 SLENDERNESS RATIO

It is defined as “The ratio of effective length of the column to its least lateral dimensions”.

Lex = Effective length in respect of major axis

D = depth in respect of major axis
Ley = Effective length in respect of minor axis
b = width of the member in respect of minor axis

 But this is not suitable for nonrectangular or noncircular cross sections.

 In this case, slenderness ratio is defined as “the ratio of effective length of member to the radius of
gyration of the cross section about the axis under consideration”.

& √

KL = Effective length
r = Radius of gyration
I = Moment of Inertia
A = Cross sectional area

4.7 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COLUMNS [Pg – 92, IS 456-2000]

Effective length of the columns depends on

o Unsupported length (distance between lateral connections)
o Boundary conditions at the ends of the column

L = unsupported length or clear height of columns

K = constant or effective length ratio depends on restraints at ends of column

 Effective length of compression members depends on the bracing and end conditions
 For braced (laterally restrained at ends), Effective length < clear height
 For un-braced and partially braced, Effective length > clear height between restraints

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4.8 SLENDERNESS LIMITS [Pg – 42, IS 456-2000]

 In the design of R.C Columns, the dimension of the column should be selected in such a way that it
fails by material failure only and not by buckling.
 To ensure this criterion, the code recommends
 Unsupported length 60 times the least lateral dimensions of the column
 For braced columns, Unsupported length is limited to 30
 For cantilever columns,
o L ≤ 60b
o

4.9 MINIMUM ECCENTRICITY [Pg – 42, IS 456-2000]

 All columns should be designed for minimum eccentricity, which take care of any imperfections in
constructions and inaccuracy in loading
 For rectangular and circular sections,

( )

L = unsupported length
D = lateral dimensions in the plane of bending

b = width of the column

D = depth of the column

 For nonrectangular and noncircular cross sections,

( ) (Whichever is greater)

L = unsupported length
D = lateral dimensions in the plane of bending

 When Biaxial bending is considered, it sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the minimum
about one axis at a time

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4.10 LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF COLUMNS [Pg – 70, IS 456-2000]

4.10.1 Assumptions

 Plane section normal to axis remain plane after bending

 The maximum compressive strain in concrete under axial compression is 0.002
 The maximum compressive strain at the highly compressed extreme fibre in concrete subjected to
axial compression and bending and when there is no tension on the section shall be 0.0035 minus
0.75 times the strain at the least compressed extreme fibre.

4.10.2 Design equations

 In RCC columns, the total compressive load taken by the column is sum of the load taken by the
column concrete and load taken by the steel.

Total compressive load = Load taken by concrete + Load taken by steel

 Maximum load taken by concrete,

 The Limit state method assumes that stress strain of the concrete is parabolic comes rectangular.

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From, the stress block and IS 456-2000

CUBE MEMBER
Characteristic strength = Characteristic strength =

Partial safety factor (concrete) = 1.5

Partial safety factor (concrete) = 1.5

= Maximum
Stress = Maximum
Stress

MILD STEEL (FE250) TOR STEEL (FE 410, FE 500)

Characteristic strength = Characteristic strength = 0.8

Partial safety factor (Steel) = 1.15 Partial safety factor (Steel) = 1.15

= Maximum Stress = Maximum Stress

= +

= + (MILD STEEL)

= + (TOR STEEL)

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 Since 5% eccentricity is allowed as per IS 456, the load carrying capacity is reduced to 90%
 Hence,

= 0.9 ( )

= [Pg – 71, IS 456-2000]

Ag = Gross area of column = bD

Asc = area of longitudinal reinforcement in the column

Ac = area of concrete in the column

Ag = Ac + Asc

Ac = Ag - Asc

=
= ( )
=

 The above equation is suitable for

o Short column
o Eccentricity less than 5%

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4.11 DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED SHORT COLUMNS [Pg – 71, IS 456-2000]

The design of an axially loaded reinforced concrete (RC) short column is quite simple and straightforward. It
is governed by the strength of materials and the cross-section of the member. If vertical axial loads act on the
center of gravity of the column's cross-section, it is termed as an axially loaded column.

Axially loaded columns rarely exist in practice because of factors like inaccuracy in the layout of the column,
unsymmetrical loading due to differences in the thickness of slabs in adjacent spans, and imperfections in the
alignment that can easily shift the point of vertical load action away from the center of the column cross-
section and, consequently, create eccentricities.

The axially loaded columns are those with relatively small eccentricity, e, of about 0.1 h or less, where h is the
total depth of the column and e is the eccentric distance from the center of the column. The interior column of
multistory buildings with symmetrical loads from floor slabs from all sides is an example of an axially loaded
column.

C1 – Axially Loaded Columns

 For Columns with lateral ties,

=
 For Columns with Spiral / Helical reinforcements,
o Load carrying capacity of column increases by 5%
o Because, the continuous spiral ties offer the hoop compression
o So longitudinal bars extend because of Poisson effect
=1.05 ( )

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o IS 456 specifies, ( )( )

o If this check satisfies, strength of column is 1.05 Pu

o If this check is not satisfied, strength of column in Pu only
o Which means helical reinforcements acts as lateral ties

4.12 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENTS [Pg – 48, IS 456-2000]

Area of Longitudinal reinforcements,

o Maximum Asc = 6% Ag (For single storey)
o Maximum Asc = 4% Ag (For overlap condition)
o Minimum Asc = 0.8% Ag
 Minimum number of longitudinal bars
o Rectangular / Square column = 4 bars
o Circular column = 6 bars
 Minimum diameter of bars used in columns = 12mm
 Spacing of longitudinal bars 300mm.

4.13 TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENTS [Pg – 49, IS 456-2000]

Lateral Ties Helical Reinforcement

Minimum diameter of lateral ties, Minimum diameter of helical reinforcement,

 6mm  6mm
 x diameter of largest longitudinal bar  x dia of largest longitudinal bar

Pitch of lateral ties, (whichever is less) Pitch of helical reinforcement,

Maximum pitch: (lesser value)
 Least lateral dimension of the column  75mm
 16*diameter of smallest longitudinal bar  * core diameter of column
 300 mm Minimum pitch: (greater value)
 25mm
 3* diameter of helical reinforcement

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1. A concrete column is reinforced with 4 bars of 20 mm diameter. Determine the ultimate load
capacity of the column, using M20 grade concrete and FE415 steel, if size of the column is (a) 450 x
450 mm (b) 300 x 300 mm. What will be the allowable service load in each case?
Given:

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = FE415 fy = 415 N/mm2

Reinforcement = 4 bars of 20 mm diameter

Case (A): B = D = 450 mm Case (B): B = D = 300 mm

CASE (A) Solution:

B = D = 450 mm

Step 1 : Check for Eccentricity :

Let minimum eccentricity be 20 mm

Hence design equation for short column is applicable.

Step 2 : Load capacity of the column :

Ag = 450 * 450 = 202500 mm2

Asc = 4*( ) = 4*( ) = 1256.64 mm2

= (0.4 * 20 * 202500) + (([0.67 * 415 ] – [0.4 * 20]) * 1256.64)

= 1959.35 kN
Step 3 : Allowable Service Load :

Pu = 1.5 * P

1959.36 * 1000 = 1.5 * P

P =

P = 1306.2 kN

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CASE (B) Solution:

B = D = 300 mm

Step 1 : Check for Eccentricity :

Let minimum eccentricity be 20 mm

The condition is unsatisfied.

Hence the column has to be solved for a case of combined axial load and bending.

DESIGN OF SHORT COLUMN:

2. Design a short axially loaded square column 500 mm x 500 mm for a service load of 2000kN. Used
materials are M 20 Concrete and FE415 steel.
Given:

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = FE415 fy = 415 N/mm2

Axial load (P) = 2000 kN

Size of the column = 500 x 500 mm

Solution:

Step 1 : Check for Minimum Eccentricity :

When effective length of the column is not known, Let minimum eccentricity be 20 mm

Hence design equation for short column is applicable.

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Step 2 : Area of steel reinforcement required :

Pu = 1.5 * P = 1.5 * 2000 = 3000 kN

Ag = 500 * 500 = 250000 mm2

3000 x 103 = (0.4 * 20 * 250000) + (([0.67 * 415] – [0.4 * 20]) * Asc )

3000000 = (2000000) + (270.05 * Asc )

270.05 * Asc = 3000000 - 2000000

Asc =

Asc = 3073.02 mm2

Step 3 : Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Area of reinforcement required (Asc)Required = 3703.02 mm2

Let us provide 25 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

ast = =

ast = 490.87 mm2

Number of bars, n= = = 7.54

n 8 Bars

Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.8 % Ag Ast Provided = n * ast

Ast min = 0.008 * 250000 Ast Provided = 8 *

Ast min = 2000 mm2 Ast Provided = 3926.96 mm2

Ast Provided > Ast min

Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 8 # of 25 mm ø bars as main longitudinal reinforcements

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Step 4 : Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Let us provide lateral ties as transverse reinforcement

a) Diameter of Lateral ties:

 6 mm
 x Main bar = x 25 = 6.25

Diameter of ties required = 6.25 mm (Greatest Value)

Diameter of ties provided = 8 mm

b) Pitch of Lateral ties:

 Least lateral dimension = 500 mm
 16 * Smallest Longitudinal bar = 16 * 25 = 400 mm
 300 mm

Pitch of ties provided = 300 mm

Provide 8 mm ø lateral ties at 300 mm c/c

Step 5 : Detailing :

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3. Design a rectangular column of 4.5 m unsupported length, restrained in position and direction at
both ends to carry an axial load of 1200kN. Used materials are M 20 Concrete and FE415 steel.
Given:

Unsupported length of the column = 4.5m = 4500 mm

Axial load (P) = 1200 kN

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = FE415 fy = 415 N/mm2

End Conditions = Restrained in position and direction at both the ends

Solution:

Step 1 : Effective length and Ultimate Load :

Effective length of the column

Leff = 0.65 L (Restrained in position and direction at both the ends)

Leff = 0.65 * 4500 Leff = 2925 mm

Ultimate load of the column Pu = 1.5 * P

Pu = 1.5 * 1200 Pu = 1800 kN

Step 2 : Area of steel reinforcement required :

Assume, Area of steel reinforcement as 1% of Gross area of column

Asc = 0.01 Ag and

Hence design equation for short column is applicable.

1800 x 103 = (0.4 * 20 * Ag) + (([0.67 * 415] – [0.4 * 20]) * 0.01 Ag )

1800000 = 8 Ag + 2.7005 Ag

10.7005 Ag = 18000000

Ag = Ag = 168216 mm2

Asc = 0.01 Ag = 0.01 * 168216

Asc = 1682.16 mm2

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Ag = Ac + Asc

168216 = Ac + 1682.16

Ac = 166533.84 mm2

Step 3 : Dimensioning of Column:

Gross area of the column Ag = 168216

BxD = 168216
Assume B = 0.5 D
(0.5 D) x D = 168216
0.5 D2 = 168216
D2 = 336432

D = 580.02 mm D 600 mm

B = 0.5 * 600 B 300 mm

Size of the column is 300 mm x 600 mm

Step 4 : Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Area of reinforcement required (Asc)Required = 1682.16 mm2

Let us provide 20 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

ast = = ast = 314.16 mm2

Number of bars, n= = = 5.35 n 6 Bars

Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.8 % Ag Ast Provided = n * ast

Ast min = 0.008 * (300*600) Ast Provided = 6 * 314.16
Ast min = 1440 mm2 Ast Provided = 1884.96 mm2
Ast Provided > Ast min

Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 6 # of 20 mm ø bars as main longitudinal reinforcements

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Step 5 : Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Let us provide lateral ties as transverse reinforcement

a) Diameter of Lateral ties:

 6 mm
 x Main bar = x 20 = 5

Diameter of ties required = 6 mm (Greatest Value)

Diameter of ties provided = 8 mm

b) Pitch of Lateral ties:

 Least lateral dimension = 300 mm
 16 * Smallest Longitudinal bar = 16 * 20 = 400 mm
 300 mm

Pitch of ties provided = 300 mm

Provide 8 mm ø lateral ties at 300 mm c/c

Step 6 : Detailing :

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4. Design a circular column to carry an axial load of 1000 kN. Use materials are M 20 Concrete and
FE415 steel. Provide lateral ties.
Given:
Axial load (P) = 1000 kN
Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel = FE415 fy = 415 N/mm2

Solution:
Step 1 : Area of steel reinforcement required :

Assume, Area of steel reinforcement as 1% of Gross area of column

Asc = 0.01 Ag and

Pu = 1.5 * P = 1.5 * 1000 Pu = 1500 kN

Hence design equation for short column is applicable.

1500 x 103 = (0.4 * 20 * Ag) + (([0.67 * 415] – [0.4 * 20]) * 0.01 Ag )

1500000 = 8 Ag + 2.7005 Ag
10.7005 Ag = 15000000

Ag = Ag = 140180.4 mm2

Asc = 0.01 Ag = 0.01 * 140180.4

Asc = 1401.80 mm2

Ag = Ac + Asc
140180.4 = Ac + 1401.80
Ac = 138778.6 mm2

Step 3 : Dimensioning of Column:

Gross area of the column Ag = 140180.4

= 140180.4

D2 = 140180.4 *

D2 = 178483.22

D = 422.47 mm D 425 mm
Size of the column is 425mm in Diameter

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Step 4 : Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Area of reinforcement required (Asc)Required = 1401.80 mm2

Let us provide 16 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

ast = = ast = 201.06 mm2

Number of bars, n= = = 6.97 n 7 Bars

Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.8 % Ag Ast Provided = n * ast

Ast min = 0.008 * ( ) Ast Provided = 6 * 201.06

Ast min = 1134.9 mm2 Ast Provided = 1407.42 mm2

Ast Provided > Ast min

Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 7 # of 16 mm ø bars as main longitudinal reinforcements

Step 5 : Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Let us provide lateral ties as transverse reinforcement

a) Diameter of Lateral ties:

 6 mm
 x Main bar = x 16 = 4 mm

Diameter of ties required = 6 mm (Greatest Value)

Diameter of ties provided = 8 mm

b) Pitch of Lateral ties:

 Least lateral dimension = 425 mm
 16 * Smallest Longitudinal bar = 16 * 16 = 256 mm
 300 mm
Pitch of ties provided = 250 mm

Provide 8 mm ø lateral ties at 250 mm c/c

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Step 6 : Detailing :

5. Design a circular column to carry an axial load of 1000 kN. Use materials are M 20 Concrete and
FE415 steel. Provide Helical reinforcements.
Given:

Axial load (P) = 1000 kN

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = FE415 fy = 415 N/mm2

Solution:

Step 1 : Area of steel reinforcement required :

Assume, Area of steel reinforcement as 1% of Gross area of column

Asc = 0.01 Ag and

Pu = 1.5 * P = 1.5 * 1000 Pu = 1500 kN

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Hence design equation for short column is applicable.

= 1.05 [ ]

1500 x 103 = 1.05 [(0.4 * 20 * Ag) + (([0.67 * 415] – [0.4 * 20]) * 0.01 Ag )]
1500000 = 1.05 [8 Ag + 2.7005 Ag]
1500000 = 1.05 [10.7005 Ag]
11.2355 Ag = 15000000

Ag = Ag = 133505.41 mm2

Asc = 0.01 Ag = 0.01 * 133505.41 Asc = 1335.05 mm2

Ag = Ac + Asc
133505.41 = Ac + 1335.05
Ac = 132170.36 mm2

Step 3 : Dimensioning of Column:

Gross area of the column Ag = 132170.36

= 132170.36

D2 = 168284.53

D = 410.22 mm D 425 mm
Size of the column is 425mm in Diameter

Step 4 : Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Area of reinforcement required (Asc)Required = 1335.05 mm2

Let us provide 16 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

ast = = ast = 201.06 mm2

Number of bars, n= = = 6.64 n 7 Bars

Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.8 % Ag Ast Provided = n * ast

Ast min = 0.008 * ( ) Ast Provided = 6 * 201.06

Ast min = 1134.9 mm2 Ast Provided = 1407.42 mm2

Ast Provided > Ast min, Hence safe.

Provide 7 # of 16 mm ø bars as main longitudinal reinforcement

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Step 4 : Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Let us provide Helical reinforcement as transverse reinforcement

a) Diameter of Helical reinforcement:

 6 mm
 x Main bar = x 16 = 4 mm

Diameter of ties required = 6 mm (Greatest Value)

Diameter of ties provided = 8 mm

b) Pitch of Helical reinforcement:

( )( )

Ag = = 141862.54 mm2

Let us assume cover to column be 40mm

Diameter of core (Dk) = 425 – 40 – 40 = 345 mm

Area outside helical bar (Ak) = = = 93482.02 mm2

Area of main reinforcement provided = 1407.42 mm2

Area of core (Ac) = Area outside helical bar – Area of main bars provided

= 93482.02 – 1407.42

Ac = 92074.6 mm2

Volume of core (Vc) = Area of core * Length of the core

= 92074.6 * 1 (per meter length)

Volume of core (Vc) = 92074.6 mm2

Volume of helical reinforcement (Vh) = Area of helical reinforcement * Perimeter

Area of helical reinforcement = = 50.26 mm2

Perimeter of helical reinforcement =

Diameter of helix (dk) = 425 - 40 – 40 – 4 – 4 = 337 mm

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Perimeter of helical reinforcement = =

Volume of helical reinforcement (Vh) = 50.26 *

Volume of helical reinforcement (Vh) =

Since the helical reinforcement is assumed to be providing additional 5% strength

( )( )

( )( )

Pitch = 61.61 mm

Pitch required = 60 mm

Maximum Pitch

* 75 mm

* x Dk = x 345 = 57.5 mm

Minimum Pitch

* 25 mm

* 3 * dh = 3 * 8 = 24 mm

Pitch should lies between 24 mm and 57.5 mm, also required pitch is 60 mm

Lets provide a pitch of 55 mm

Provide 8 mm ø helical reinforcement at 50 mm pitch c/c

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Step 6 : Detailing :

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6. A circular column 4.6m high is effectively held in position at both ends and restrained against
rotation at one end. Design the column to carry an axial load of 1200 kN, if its diameter is restricted
to 450 mm. Use M20 mix and FE415 steel.
Given:

Unsupported length of the column = 4.6m = 4600 mm

Axial load (P) = 1200 kN

Restriction in dimension of column = 450 mm (Max)

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = FE415 fy = 415 N/mm2

End Conditions = Restrained in position at both ends

Restrained in rotation at one end

Solution:

Step 1 : Effective length and Ultimate Load :

Effective length of the column Leff = 0.8 L(Restrained in position at both end & rotation at one
end)

Leff = 0.8 * 4600 Leff = 3680 mm

Ultimate load of the column Pu = 1.5 * P

Pu = 1.5 * 1200 Pu = 1800 kN

Step 2 : Check for Minimum Eccentricity :

( )

( ) (Let diameter of column be 450mm)

> 20 mm (Condition satisfies)

(Condition satisfies)

Hence design equation for short column is applicable.

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Step 3 : Area of steel reinforcement required :

Ag = Ag = 159043.13 mm2

1800 x 103 = (0.4 * 20 * 159043.13) + (([0.67 * 415] – [0.4 * 20]) * Asc )

1800000 = (1272345.04) + (270.05 * Asc )

270.05 * Asc = 1272345.04 - 1800000

Asc = Asc = 1953.9 mm2

Step 4 : Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Area of reinforcement required (Asc)Required = 1953.9 mm2

Let us provide 20 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

ast = = ast = 314.56 mm2

Number of bars, n= = = 6.22 n 7 Bars

Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.8 % Ag Ast Provided = n * ast

Ast min = 0.008 * ( ) Ast Provided = 7 * 314.56

Ast min = 1272 mm2 Ast Provided = 2201.92 mm2

Ast Provided > Ast min

Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 7 # of 20 mm ø bars as main longitudinal reinforcements

Step 5 : Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Let us provide lateral ties as transverse reinforcement

a) Diameter of Lateral ties:
 6 mm
 x Main bar = x 20 = 5 mm

Diameter of ties required = 6 mm (Greatest Value)

Diameter of ties provided = 8 mm

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b) Pitch of Lateral ties:

 Least lateral dimension = 450 mm
 16 * Smallest Longitudinal bar = 16 * 20 = 320 mm
 300 mm
Pitch of ties provided = 300 mms
Provide 8 mm ø lateral ties at 300 mm c/c
Step 6 : Detailing :

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4.14 DESIGN OF UNIAXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS

Generally, column is a compression member. It carries mostly axial forces. But in its life span it carries some
bending moment also. Most of the columns are designed as short columns in practice. But in practical cases
we cannot use short column in all situations. Short columns can be designed by first order analysis. Balanced
failure concept is an essential and important step to design a short column. It gives an idea to the designer
about how much load (Both axial & bending) a column can carry safely. During design work the column load
/ column position may be changed for some reasons (Architectural purpose or client requirements or
accidentally). With the change of column load / column position; column forces or moments are changed.
Again, with the change of column orientation neutral axis is also changed with a significant amount which
affects the other values such as load, moment carrying capacity etc.

Uniaxially loaded column may be defined as the column in which the axial force P is not acting on the
centroid of the member, it is said to be eccentric. Due to eccentricity, a moment will develop in any one axis
of the column. Bending takes place in any one axis of the column.

C2 – Uniaxially Loaded Columns

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7. Design a reinforced concrete column 400mm square to carry an ultimate load of 1000kN at an
eccentricity of 160mm. Use M20 mix and Fe250 steel.
Given:

Ultimate load (Pu) = 1000 kN

Breadth of the column (B) = 400 mm
Depth of the column (D) = 400 mm
Eccentricity of loading(e) = 160 mm
Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel = Fe250 fy = 250 N/mm2

Solution:

Step 1 : Factored Moment:

Factored Moment, Mu = Pu * e

Mu = 1000 * 160

Mu = 160000 Nmm or 0.16 x 106 kNm

Step 2 : Non-dimensional parameters:

Let us assume effective cover of the column, d’ = 40mm

= = 0.1

= = 0.3125

= = 0.125

Step 3 : Area of steel reinforcement required :

Let us assume the reinforcements are provided “Equally on two sides”

From the Interaction diagram (SP 16), Chart 28

= 0.105

p = 0.105 * fck
= 0.105 * 20 p = 2.1

Ast = Ast = 3360 mm2

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Step 4 : Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Area of reinforcement required (Ast)Required = 3360 mm2

Let us provide 25 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

ast = = ast = 490.87 mm2

Number of bars, n= = = 6.87 n 7 Bars

Since main reinforcement need to be distributed evenly, Rearrange main reinforcement

Let us provide 4# of 25mm ø bars at corners and 2# of 30mm ø bars in between 25mm bars
Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.8 % Ag Ast Provided = n * ast

Ast min = 0.008 * (400*400) Ast Provided = 4*( ) + 2*( )

Ast min = 1280 mm2 Ast Provided = 3379.2 mm2

Ast Provided > Ast min
Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 4# of 25mm ø bars at corners and 2# of 30mm ø bars in between 25mm bars as main longitudinal
reinforcements

Step 5 : Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Let us provide lateral ties as transverse reinforcement

a) Diameter of Lateral ties:

 6 mm
 x Main bar = x 30 = 7.5 mm

Diameter of ties required = 7.5 mm (Greatest Value)

Diameter of ties provided = 8 mm

b) Pitch of Lateral ties:

 Least lateral dimension = 400 mm
 16 * Smallest Longitudinal bar = 16 * 25 = 400 mm
 300 mm

Pitch of ties provided = 300 mms

Provide 8 mm ø lateral ties at 300 mm c/c

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Step 6 : Detailing :

8. Design a short reinforced concrete column of 500mm diameter with the following data,
Factored Load = 800kN
Factored Moments = 162.5 kNm
Grade of concrete = M20
Grade of steel = Fe415
Provide Hoop reinforcement.
Given:

Factored load (Pu) = 800 kN

Factored Moment (Mu) = 162.5 kNm
Diameter of the column (D) = 500 mm
Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel = Fe415 fy = 415 N/mm2

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Solution:

Step 1 : Non-dimensional parameters:

Let us assume effective cover of the column, d’ = 50mm

= = 0.1

= = 0.16

= = 0.065

Step 2 : Area of steel reinforcement required :

From the Interaction diagram (SP 16), Chart 55

= 0.05

p = 0.05 * fck
= 0.05 * 20
p = 1

Ast = Ast = 1963.5 mm2

Step 3 : Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Area of reinforcement required (Ast)Required = 1963.5 mm2

Let us provide 20 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

ast = = ast = 314.16 mm2

Number of bars, n= = = 6.25 n 7 Bars

Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.8 % Ag Ast Provided = n * ast

Ast min = 0.008 * ( ) Ast Provided = 7*314.16

Ast min = 1570.8 mm2 Ast Provided = 2199.11 mm2

Ast Provided > Ast min
Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 7 # of 20 mm ø bars as main longitudinal reinforcements

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Step 4 : Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Let us provide lateral ties as transverse reinforcement

a) Diameter of Lateral ties:

 6 mm
 x Main bar = x 20 = 5 mm

Diameter of ties required = 6 mm (Greatest Value)

Diameter of ties provided = 8 mm

b) Pitch of Lateral ties:

 Least lateral dimension = 500 mm
 16 * Smallest Longitudinal bar = 16 * 20 = 320 mm
 300 mm

Pitch of ties provided = 300 mms

Provide 8 mm ø hoops at 300 mm c/c

Step 5 : Detailing :

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1.15 DESIGN OF BIAXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS

Biaxial bending of columns occurs when the loading causes bending simultaneously about both principal
axes. The commonly encountered case of such loading occurs in corner columns. Corner and other columns
exposed to known moments about each axis simultaneously should be designed for biaxial bending and axial
load. Beams and girders transfer their end moments into the corner columns of a building frame in two
perpendicular planes. Interior columns may also have biaxial moments if the layout of the columns is
irregular. Accordingly, such columns are designed considering axial load with biaxial bending

Biaxially loaded column may be defined as the column in which the axial force P is not acting on the centroid
of the member, it is said to be eccentric. Due to eccentricity, a moment will develop in both axis of the
column. Bending takes place in both axis of the column.

C3 – Biaxially Loaded Columns

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9. Design the reinforcement in a short column 400 mm x 400 mm at the corner of a multi-storeyed
building to support an axial factored load of 1500kN together with biaxial moments of 50kNm acting
in perpendicular planes. Adopt M20 grade concrete and Fe415 HYSD bars.
Given:

Factored load (Pu) = 1500 kN

Factored Moment along x-axis (Mux) = 50 kNm
Factored Moment along y-axis (Muy) = 50 kNm
Breadth of the column (b) = 400 mm
Depth of the column (D) = 400 mm
Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2
Grade of steel = Fe415 fy = 4150 N/mm2

Solution:

Step 1 : Equivalent Moment :

Step 2 : Non-dimensional parameters:

Let us assume effective cover of the column, d’ = 40mm

= = 0.1

= = 0.468

= = 0.063

Step 3 : Area of steel reinforcement required :

Let us assume the reinforcements are provided “Equally on four sides”

From the Interaction diagram (SP 16), Chart 44

= 0.06

p = 0.06 * fck
= 0.06 * 20
p = 1.2

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Ast = Ast = 1920 mm2

Step 4 : Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Area of reinforcement required (Ast)Required = 1920 mm2

Let us provide combination of 16mm and 20 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

ast = = ast = 314.16 mm2

ast = = ast = 201.06 mm2

Provide 4# of 20mm ø and 4# of 16mm ø bars distributed equally on all faces with 3 bars in each face
Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.8 % Ag Ast Provided = n * ast

Ast min = 0.008 * Ast Provided = 4*314.16 + 4*201.06
Ast min = 1280 mm2 Ast Provided = 2060.88 mm2
Ast Provided > Ast min
Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 4# of 20mm ø and 4# of 16mm ø bars distributed equally on all faces with 3 bars in each face
as main longitudinal reinforcements

Step 5 : Parameters for Biaxial bending :

p = 1.28
= = 0.064

= = 0.468

By reverse interaction in Chart 44 of SP 16,

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Mux1 = 0.07 * 20 * 400 * 4002

Mux1 = 89.6 kNm

Due to symmetry Mux1 = Mux2 = 89.6 kNm

From Chart 63 of SP 16,

Puz = 13 * Ag

Puz = 13 * 400 * 400

Puz = 2080 kN

= = 0.72

By clause 39.6 of IS 456:2000

For, = 0.72,
0.2 1
0.8 2

Step 6: Check for Biaxial bending:

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Hence the design is safe

Step 7: Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Let us provide lateral ties as transverse reinforcement

a) Diameter of Lateral ties:

 6 mm
 x Largest Main bar = x 20 = 5 mm

Diameter of ties required = 6 mm (Greatest Value)

Diameter of ties provided = 8 mm

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b) Pitch of Lateral ties:

 Least lateral dimension = 400 mm
 16 * Smallest Longitudinal bar = 16 * 16 = 256 mm
 300 mm

Pitch of ties provided = 250 mms

Provide 8 mm ø lateral ties at 250 mm c/c

Step 8 : Detailing :

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10. Design a short column subjected to biaxial bending,

Column size = 400 x 600 mm
Factored Load = 2000kN
Factored Moments along x-axis = 160 kNm
Factored Moments along y-axis = 120 kNm
Use M20 concrete and Fe415 steel

Given:

Factored load (Pu) = 2000 kN

Factored Moment along x-axis (Mux) = 160 kNm

Factored Moment along y-axis (Muy) = 120 kNm

Breadth of the column (b) = 600 mm

Depth of the column (D) = 400 mm

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = Fe415 fy = 4150 N/mm2

Solution:

Since it is being a rectangular, strength of the section along both the axis may vary. Hence both the
axis will be considered.

Trail 1:

Step 1 : Non-dimensional parameters:

Let us assume effective cover of the column, d’ = 50mm

X - Axis Y - Axis

= = 0.083 0.1 = = 0.125 0.15

= = 0.417
= = 0.417

Assume the reinforcement percentage, p = 1.25

= = 0.0625 = = 0.0625

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From Chart 44, From Chart 44,

= =

= =

= 0.085 * 20 * 400 * = 0.085 * 20 * 600 *

= 244.8 kNm = 163.2 kNm

Step 2 : Parameters for Biaxial bending :

From Chart 63, For M20 and Fe415 and also p = 1.25 %

Puz = 13 * Ag

Puz = 13 * 400 * 600 Puz = 3120 kN

= = 0.64

By clause 39.6 of IS 456:2000

For, = 0.64,
0.2 1
0.8 2

Step 3: Check for Biaxial bending:

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Condition Unsatisfied. Hence the reinforcement has to be increased

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Step 4 : Revised p and Area of steel reinforcement requirement:

( )
For Revised p,
( )

p = 1.25

( ) = ( ) = 0.6536

( ) = ( ) = 0.7353

= 0.64

For the values of ( ) and , From chart 64

( ) = 0.60

( )
= p = 1.362
( )

= Ast = 3268.8 mm2

Step 4 : Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Area of reinforcement required (Ast)Required = 3268.8 mm2

Let us provide 20 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

ast = = ast = 314.16 mm2

Number of bars, n= = = 10.40 n 12 Bars

Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.8 % Ag Ast Provided = n * ast

Ast min = 0.008 * Ast Provided = 12*314.16
Ast min = 1920 mm2 Ast Provided = 3770 mm2
Ast Provided > Ast min

Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 12# of 20mm ø bars in distributed equally on all faces as main longitudinal reinforcements

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Trail 2:

Step 5 : Non-dimensional parameters:

= = 1.5708

Let us assume effective cover of the column, d’ = 50mm

X - Axis Y - Axis

= = 0.083 0.1 = = 0.125 0.15

= = 0.417
= = 0.417

= = 0.07854 = = 0.07854

From Chart 44, From Chart 44,

= =

= =

= 0.1 * 20 * 400 * = 0.09 * 20 * 600 *

= 288 kNm = 172.8 kNm

Step 6 : Parameters for Biaxial bending :

From Chart 63, For M20 and Fe415 and also p = 1.5708 %

Puz = 13.5 * Ag

Puz = 13.5 * 400 * 600 Puz = 3240 kN

= = 0.617

By clause 39.6 of IS 456:2000

For, = 0.617,
0.2 1
0.8 2

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Step 7: Check for Biaxial bending:

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Condition Satisfied. Hence the design is safe

Step 8: Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Let us provide lateral ties as transverse reinforcement

a) Diameter of Lateral ties:

 6 mm
 x Largest Main bar = x 20 = 5 mm

Diameter of ties required = 6 mm (Greatest Value)

Diameter of ties provided = 8 mm

b) Pitch of Lateral ties:

 Least lateral dimension = 400 mm
 16 * Smallest Longitudinal bar = 16 * 20 = 320 mm
 300 mm

Pitch of ties provided = 300 mm

Provide 8 mm ø lateral ties at 300 mm c/c

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Step 9 : Detailing :

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UNIT 5
LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF FOUNDATION & RETAINING WALL
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Footings are the most important part of foundation construction. The purpose of footings is to support
the foundation, prevent settling, and is crucial to providing the proper support for the foundation and
ultimately the structure. Footings are the final point of contact and support for the entire weight of the
structure. The footings distribute the weight from the walls and the rest of the structure making it
solid and strong. If the weight is unevenly distributed or unsupported then you may begin to
encounter issues common with a failing foundation such as sagging walls, cracked floors and stem
walls, and other related problems.

5.2 FOUNDATION
Foundation is described as that part of the structure which transfers the load from the structure as well
as its own weight over a large area of soil in such a way that the load does not exceed the soil’s
ultimate bearing ability and remains within a tolerable limit of the total structure settlement. The firm
earth on which the floor lies is regarded as the base layer. Foundation is the part of structure below
plinth level up to the soil. It is in direct contact of soil and transmits load of super structure to soil.
Generally it is below the ground level. If some part of foundation is above ground level, it is also
covered with earth filling. This portion of structure is not in contact of air, light etc, or to say that it is
the hidden part of the structure. The foundation is one of the most important components of the
structure.

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5.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Different types of soil occur and soil bearing potential is specific for each particular soil type. Thus,
depending on the structure’s soil profile, size, and load, engineers have chosen different foundation
types. Foundations are typically classified into two groups, such as Shallow Foundations and Deep
Foundations. The terms Shallow Foundation and Deep Foundation apply to the density of the
foundation’s soil.

Generally, if the foundation width is larger than the foundation depth it is known as “Shallow
Foundation” and if the foundation width is less than the foundation depth it is named “Deep
Foundation”. Furthermore, shallow and deep foundations can be further graded as shown in the
accompanying table.

Foundation

Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation

Footing Mat or Raft Pier

Spread Strap Combined Pile

Continuous Footing Isolated Footing Well

(Wall Footing)
Square

Circular

Rectangular

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5.3.1 FOOTINGS
Any structure is generally considered to have 2 main portions, Super structure and Sub structure. The
substructure transmits the loads of superstructure to the supporting soil and is generally termed as the
foundation. Footing is the portion of the foundation which ultimately delivers the load to the soil, and
is thus in contact with it. The load of the super structure is transmitted to the foundation or
substructure through either columns or walls. The object of providing foundation to a structure is to
distribute the load to the soil in such a way that the maximum pressure on the soil does not exceed its
permissible bearing value, and at the same time the settlement is within the permissible limits.

[Link] SPREAD FOOTING

A spread footing foundation, which is common in residential buildings, has a wider bottom portion
than the load-bearing foundation walls it supports. This wider part "spreads" the weight of the
structure over more area for greater stability. The design and layout of spread footings is controlled
by several factors, foremost of which is the weight (load) of the structure it must support, penetration
of soft near-surface layers, and penetration through near-surface layers likely to change volume due
to frost heave or shrink-swell. These foundations are common in residential construction that includes
a basement, and in many commercial structures. But for high rise buildings they are not sufficient. A
spread footing that changes elevation in a series of vertical steps so that it follows the contours of a
sloping site or accommodates changes in soil strata, is called a stepped footing.

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[Link].1 CONTINUOUS OR WALL FOOTING

A wall footing or strip footing is a continuous strip of concrete that serves to spread the weight of a
load-bearing wall across an area of soil. It is the component of a shallow foundation. Wall footings
carrying direct vertical loads might be designed either in plain concrete or in reinforced concrete.
Wall footing are often either simple or steeped. Wall footing may be further categorized into two
types:

 Simple wall footing.

 Stepped wall footing.

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[Link].2 ISOLATED FOOTING

If separate footings are provided for each column, it is called isolated column footing. The size of
footing is based on the area required to distribute the load of the columns safely over the soil . These
footings are provided over a 100 to 150 mm bed concrete. Required reinforcements and thickness of
footing are found by the design engineers. Thickness may be uniform or varying. This type of footing
is employed for a single column.

Common shapes of the footings are

 Square
 Rectangular
 Circular.

This isolated footing is further classified into 3 types:-

 Stepped footing.
 Simple spread footing.
 Sloped footing.

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[Link] STRAP FOOTING

It is a type of combined footing, consisting of two or more column footings connected by a concrete
beam. This type of beam is called a strap beam. Strap footing is a combination of two or more
individual footings connected strap beam. It’s additionally sometimes called as cantilever footing or
pump handle foundation. The footings underneath the columns are individually built-in strap footing
and attached by a strap plate. In general, when the edge of the footing cannot be reached beyond the
line of the house, the exterior footing is attached to the internal footing by strap support.

[Link] COMBINED FOOTING

Common footings may be provided for two columns. This type of footing is necessary when a
column is very close to the boundary of the property and hence there is no scope to project footing
much beyond the column face. The footing is to be designed for transferring loads from both columns
safely to the soil. The two columns may or may not be connected by a strap beam. It is called
Combined footing. When two or more columns are available in a row then this kind of footing is
made. In this, there are two kinds of footing:-

 Rectangular-shaped combined footing - Columns are uniform or identical.

 Trapezoidal-shaped combined footing - Columns aren’t equal or same & have space limitations.

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5.3.2 MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION

If the load on the column is quite high
(Multistorey columns) or when the SBC of
soil is low, the sizes of isolated columns
may work out to be to such an extent that
they overlap each other. It is also advised
in cases where the soil’s bearing ability is
low, the strain of the system is to be spread
over a large area, or where the structure is
continuously subject to shocks or jerks. In
such situation a common footing may be
provided to several columns. Raft Base
consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab that is mounted over the entire structural area.
The whole basement floor slab serves as the backbone in this form of structure. The structure’s total
load is spread evenly across the entire structure region. Such footings are known as raft footings. If
the beams are provided in both directions over the footing slab for connecting columns, the raft
foundations may be called as grid foundation also. The added advantage of such footing is, settlement
is uniform and hence unnecessary stresses are not produced.

5.3.3 PIER FOUNDATION

Pier is an artificial device that conveys heavier load that
cannot be conveyed via shallow foundations. It is
typically shallower than the base of a hill. Pier foundation
is a cylindrical structural component which transfers
heavy load by end bearing from superstructure to soil.
Unlike plate, it can move load only through bearing, and
not through skin friction. The Pier Base becomes
economical when:

 Sound rock strata are located at the surface under a

decomposed rock sheet.
 The topsoil is hard clay that is immune to carrying
pile driving.

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5.3.4 PILE FOUNDATION

Pile is a slim member relative to its weight, with a small cross-sectional region. When the bearing
capacity of soil near the surface is relatively low, it is used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper
soil or rock strata. Pile transmits load either through rubbing of the clothing or through a bearing. Pile
foundations become economic while Soil with large bearing potential is at a greater depth, utilizing a
pile base.

5.3.5 WELL OR CAISSON FOUNDATION

Caisson base is a watertight reinforcing
framework that is used as a bridge deck, dam
construction, etc. It is typically used in systems
that need a base underneath a river or related
bodies of water. The justification for choosing the
caisson base is that it can float to the desired
location and then fall into place. Caisson Base is a
ready-made hollow cylinder sunk into the soil to
the degree required and then lined with concrete
that eventually transforms into a base. It is mostly
used as piers for bridges. Caissons are prone to
construction practices and lack structural
experience.

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5.4 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION BENEATH FOOTINGS

Pressure distribution beneath the footings, symmetrically loaded is not uniform. The pressure
intensities depend on

 Rigidity of footing
 Soil type
 Soil condition

5.5 LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF FOOTINGS

Limit state design is a design method in which the performance of a structure is checked against
various limiting conditions at appropriate load levels. In sloped or stepped footing the effective cross
section in compression shall be limited by the area above the neutral plane and the angle of slope or
depth and location of steps shall be such that the design requirements are satisfied at every section.

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5.5.1 THICKNESS AT EDGE OF THE FOOTING

In RCC and PCC footings, the thickness at the edge shall be not less than 150mm for footings on soils
nor less than 300 mm above the tops of piles for footing on piles. In the case of plain concrete
pedestals, the angle between the plane passing through the bottom edge of the pedestal and the
corresponding junction edge of the column with pedestal and horizontal plane shall be governed the
expression,

q0 = Calculated maximum bearing pressure at base of pedestal (N/mm2)

fck = Characteristic strength of concrete at 28 days (N/mm2)

5.5.2 MOMENTS AND FORCES

In the case of footings on piles, computation for moments and shears may be based on the assumption
that the reaction from any pile is concentrated at the centre of the pile. For the purpose of computing,
stresses in footings which support a round or octagonal concrete column or pedestal, the face of the
column or pedestal shall be taken as the side of a square inscribed within the perimeter of the round
or octagonal column or pedestal.

[Link] BENDING MOMENT

The bending moment at any section shall be determined by passing through the section a vertical
plane which extends completely across the footing, and computing the moment of the forces acting
over the entire area of the footing on one side of the said plane. The greatest bending moment to be
used in the design of an isolated concrete footing which supports a column, pedestal or wall, shall be
the moment computed in the manner prescribed above at sections located as follows:

a. At the face of the column, pedestal or wall, for footings supporting a concrete column, pedestal
or wall
b. Half-way between the center-line and the edge of the wall, for footings under masonry walls
c. Half-way between the face of the column or pedestal and the edge of the gusseted base, for
footings under gusseted bases

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[Link] SHEAR AND BOND

The shear strength of the footing is governed by the more severe of the following two conditions:

a. The footing acting essentially as a wide

beam, with a potential diagonal crack
extending in a plane across the entire
width; the critical section for this
condition shall be assumed as a vertical
section located from the face of the
column, pedestal or wall at a distance
equal to the effective depth of footing
for footings on piles.
b. Two-way action of the footing with
potential diagonal cracking along the
surface of truncated cone or pyramid
around the concentrated load; in this
case, footing shall be designed for shear.

5.5.3 TENSILE REINFORCEMENT

The total reinforcement at any section shall provide a moment of resistance at least equal to the
bending moment on the section. The total reinforcement shall be distributed across the corresponding
resisting section as given below:

a. In one-way reinforced footing, the reinforcement extending in each direction shall be

distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing
b. In 2-way reinforced square footing the reinforcement extending in each direction shall be
distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing
c. In 2-way reinforced rectangular footing the reinforcement in the long direction shall be
distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing. For reinforcement in shorter
direction a central band equal to the width of the footing shall be marked along the length of
the footing and portion of the reinforcement determined in accordance with the equation given
below shall be uniformly distributed across the central band:

β = Ratio of longer side to shorter side of footing

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5.5.4 TRANSFER OF LOAD AT THE BASE OF COLUMN

The compressive stress in concrete at the base of a column or pedestal shall be considered as being
transferred by bearing to the top of the supporting pedestal or footing. The bearing pressure on the
loaded area shall not exceed the permissible bearing stress in direct compression multiplied by a

value equal to √ but not greater than 2

A1 = Supporting area for bearing of footing, which in sloped or stepped footing may be taken
as the area of the lower base of the largest frustum of a pyramid or cone contained wholly
within the footing and having for its upper base, the area actually loaded and having side
slopes of one vertical to two horizontals
A2 = loaded area at the column base

For working stress method of design the permissible bearing stress on full area of concrete shall be
taken as 0.25 fck; for limit state method of design the permissible bearing stress shall be 0.45 fck.

5.5.5 NOMINAL REINFORCEMENT

Minimum reinforcement and spacing shall be as per the requirements of solid slab. The nominal
reinforcement for concrete sections of thickness greater than 1m shall be 360 mm2 per meter length in
each direction on each face. This provision does not supersede the requirement of minimum tensile
reinforcement based on the depth of the section.

5.6 DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS OR WALL FOOTING

A wall footing or strip footing is a continuous strip of concrete that serves to spread the weight of a
load-bearing wall across an area of soil. It is the component of a shallow foundation. Wall footings
carrying direct vertical loads might be designed either in plain concrete or in reinforced concrete.
Since a wall footing deflects essentially in one way, it is analyzed by considering as a strip of unit
width and its length.

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1. A brick wall 300 mm thick carries a load of 200kN/m length. Design RCC footing if
the safe bearing capacity of soil is 120 kN/m2. Use M20 concrete and Fe415 steel
Given:

Load from the wall (w) = 200 kN/m

Safe bearing capacity of soil (SBC) = 120 kN/m2

Thickness of Brick wall = 300 mm

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = FE415 fy = 415 N/mm2

Solution:

Step 1 : Load Calculation :

Load from the brick wall = 200 kN/m

Self-weight of footing = 20 kN/m (10% of Actual load of structure)

Total load on Footing (w) = 220 kN/m

Step 2 : Dimensioning of Footing : (Length and Breadth of footing)

In-order to maintain equilibrium, the soil will be providing the resisting force equals to actual
amount of load offered by the structure.
SBC (Upward soil Pressure) of the soil = Pressure generated due to actual load on footing

SBC =

120 =

Af = Af = 1.833 m2

B*L = 1.833 (Assume per meter length of the footing)

B*1 = 1.833 L 1m

B = 1.833 m B 1.85 m

Revised pressure on soil = = P0 = 109 kN/m2

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Step 3 : Calculation of Bending Moment at Critical section : (CL [Link], Pg – 65 – IS 456)

 The entire footing can be considered to consists of 2 cantilevers each projecting and
having fixed support length of
 The maximum bending moment is considered to act at Half-way between the center-line and
the edge of the wall, for footings under masonry walls (i.e) at a distance of from edge of the
wall.

Cantilever projection (x) = - = - x = 0.85 m

Maximum moment at the critical section,

M0 =

M0 = M0 = 39.376 kNm

Mu = 1.5 * 39.376 Mu = 59.06 kNm

Step 4 : Dimensioning of Footing : (Depth of footing) : (CL G 1.1.c, Pg – 96 – IS 456)

= ( )( )

From Cl 38.1, Pg – 70 – IS 456, = 0.48 (For Fe415 steel)

Based on per meter width of the footing, b = 1000

59.06 x 106 =

59.06 x 106 = 2759.2704

= = 21404.2089

d = 146.30 mm
Providing an effective cover as 50 mm to the main reinforcement,
D = d + d’ = 146.30 + 50 D = 196.36 mm
Provide D 200 mm and d 150 mm
The final Dimension of the footing is (B * L * D) = 1.85 * 1 * 0.2 m

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Step 5 : Check for Shear :

 The critical section for shear happens at a distance of “d” from face of the support
 Critical section for shear (x) = –d = - 0.15
x = 0.625m

Maximum Shear at the critical section,

V0 =

V0 = V0 = 34.0625 kN

Vu = 1.5 * 34.0625 Vu = 51.094 kN

Actual Shear stress, = = = 0.341 N/mm2

Permissible Shear stress,

Assuming % Ast = 0.3 %, then as per Table - 19, Pg – 73 – IS 456

For M20 Concrete and 0.3% Ast

% Ast for M20 Concrete

0.25 0.36

0.48
N/mm2 0.50

Then as per CL [Link], Pg – 72 – IS 456

For D = 200 mm, Ks = 1.20

Permissible Shear stress, = 1.20 * 0.384 = 0.4608N/mm2

0.384 < 0.4608

Actual shear stress < Permissible shear stress
Hence the design is safe in shear

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Step 6 : Design of Main Reinforcement :

= * +

59.06 x 106 = 0.87 * 415 * Ast * 150 * * +

59.06 x 106 = 54157.5 * Ast * [ ]

59.06 x 106 = 54157.5 Ast - 7.4918
7.4918 – 54157.5 Ast + 59.06 x 106 = 0
By Solving, Ast = 1338.27 mm2

Area of reinforcement required (Ast)Required = 1338.27 mm2

From Table - 96, Pg – 230 – SP16 456

For 12mm ø bars and Required Ast = 1338.27 mm2 S = 80mm

Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.12 % Ag Ast Provided = for 80mm spacing from SP16

Ast min = 0.0012 * 1000 * 200 Ast Provided = 1414 mm2

Ast min = 240 mm2

Ast Provided > Ast min

Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 12 mm ø bars @ 80 mm c/c as main reinforcements

Step 7 : Design of Transverse Reinforcement :

Ast min = 0.12 % Ag

Ast min = 0.0012 * 1000 * 200

Ast min = 240 mm2

From SP 16, for 8mm ø bars, Spacing S = 190 mm c/c

Provide 8 mm ø bars @ 190 mm c/c as transverse reinforcements

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Step 8 : Check for Development Length : CL 26.2.1, Pg – 42 – IS 456

Required Development Length,

Development Length Ld =

Ø = Diameter of main bars = 12 mm

= Working stress in bars = 0.87 * fy = 0.87 = 415 = 361.05 N/mm2

= 1.2 * 1.6 = 1.92 N/mm2

Ld = = = 564.14 mm Ld = 564.14 mm

Available Development length,

Ld Available = = = 0.725 m Ld = 725 mm

564.14 < 725

Required length < Available length

Hence the design is safe in Development length

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Step 9 : Detailing:

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DESIGN OF ISOLATED FOOTING OF UNIFORM THICKNESS (PAD FOOTING)

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2. Design an Isolated footing of uniform thickness of RC column bearing a vertical load

of 800 kN and having a base size of 500 mm x 500 mm. The SBC of soil may be taken
as 125 kN/m2. Use M20 Concrete and Fe415 steel.
Given:
Load from the column (w) = 800 kN

Safe bearing capacity of soil (SBC) = 125 kN/m2

Size of the column = 500 x 500 mm

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = Fe415 fy = 415 N/mm2

Solution:
Step 1 : Load Calculation :

Load from the column = 800 kN/m

Self-weight of footing = 80 kN/m (10% of Actual load of structure)

Total load on Footing (w) = 880 kN/m

Step 2 : Dimensioning of Footing : (Length and Breadth of footing)

In-order to maintain equilibrium, the soil will be providing the resisting force equals to actual
amount of load offered by the structure.
SBC (Upward soil Pressure) of the soil = Pressure generated due to actual load on footing

SBC =

125 =

Af = Af = 7.04 m2

B*L = 7.04 (B=L since it is square column)

B*B = 7.04

B = 2.65 m B=L 2.7 m

Revised pressure on soil = = P0 = 109.74 kN/m2

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Step 3 : Calculation of Bending Moment at Critical section : (CL [Link], Pg – 65 – IS 456)

 The entire footing can be considered to consists of 2 cantilevers each projecting and
having fixed support length of
 The maximum bending moment is considered to act at the face of the column, pedestal or
wall, for footings supporting a concrete column, pedestal or wall.

Cantilever projection (x) = = = 1.1 m x = 1.1 m

Actual SBC below the column = P0 B = 109.74 * 2.7 = 296.30 kN/m

Maximum moment at the critical section, M0 =

M0 =
M0 = 179.26 kNm

Mu = 1.5 * 179.26 Mu = 268.89 kNm

Step 4 : Dimensioning of Footing : (Depth of footing) : (CL G 1.1.c, Pg – 96 – IS 456)

= ( )( )

From Cl 38.1, Pg – 70 – IS 456, = 0.48 (For Fe415 steel)

268.89 x 106 =

268.89 x 106 = 7450.03

= = 36092.472

d = 189.98 mm
d 190 mm
Providing an effective cover as 60 mm to the main reinforcement,
D = d + d’
= 190 + 60
D = 250 mm
Provide D 260 mm and d 200 mm

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Step 5 : Check for Effective depth “d” based on Shear :

 The critical section for shear happens at a distance of “d” from face of the support

Critical section for shear (x) = –d = - (d x 10-3)

x = 1.1 – (d x 10-3) m

Maximum Shear at the critical section, V0 =

V0 =

V0 = 296300 *

Vu = 1.5 * 296300 *

Vu = 444450

Vu = 488895 – 444.450 d

Actual Shear stress, = =

= N/mm2

Permissible Shear stress,

Assuming % Ast = 0.3 %, then as per Table - 19, Pg – 73 – IS 456

For M20 Concrete and 0.3% Ast

% Ast for M20 Concrete

0.25 0.36

0.48
N/mm2 0.50

Since “d” is not known, Consider Ks = 1

then Permissible Shear stress, = 1 * 0.384

N/mm2

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Assuming Actual shear stress = Permissible shear stress

= 0.384

= 0.384 d

0.384d + 0.1646d = 181.072

0.5486 d = 181.072

d = = 330.06 mm

d 340 mm

Providing an effective cover as 60 mm to the main reinforcement,

D = d + d’
= 340 + 60
D = 400 mm

Finally, D 400 mm and d 340 mm

The final size of footing is 2.7 * 2.7 * 0.4 m

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Step 6 : Check for Two way shear :

 The critical section for two-way shear happens at a distance of “d/2” from face of the support
Size of Critical section for two-way shear,

Size of Critical section for two-way shear = 840 mm

Pressure at Critical Section (V) = Pressure on whole footing – Pressure at center

= (109.74 * 2.7 * 2.7) – (109.74 * 0.84 * 0.84)

V = 734.96 kN

Factored Shear force, Vu = 1.5 * 734.96

Vu = 1102.44 kN

Actual Shear stress, = =

=
= 0.965 N/mm2
Permissible Shear stress,

As per Cl [Link], Pg – 58 – IS 456

1 = =1

= 1.5 > 1 Hence Ks = 1

√ = 0.25 * √ 1.118 N/mm2

Permissible Shear stress, = 1 * 1.118 = 1.118 N/mm2
0.965 < 1.118
Actual shear stress < Permissible shear stress
Hence the design is safe in shear

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Step 7 : Design of Main Reinforcement :

= * +

268.89 x 106 = 0.87 * 415 * Ast * 340 * * +

268.89 x 106 = 122757 * Ast * [ ]

268.89 x 106 = 122757 Ast - 2.7743
2.7743 – 122757 Ast + 268.89 x 106 = 0
By Solving, Ast = 2311.17 mm2

Area of reinforcement required (Ast)Required = 2311.17 mm2

Let us provide 14 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

From Table - 95, Pg – 229 – SP16

For 14mm ø bars and Required Ast = 2311.7 mm2 n 16 Bars

From Table - 96, Pg – 230 – SP16

For 14mm ø bars and Required Ast = 2311.7 mm2 S = 60mm for /m width

For 2.7 m width of footing S = 60 * 2.7 = 162 mm S 160 mm c/c

Check for Minimum reinforcement,

Ast min = 0.12 % Ag Ast Provided = From Table 95 of SP 16

Ast min = 0.0012 * 2700 * 340 Ast Provided = 2463.04 mm2

Ast min = 1101.6 mm2

Ast Provided > Ast min

Hence, the Design of main longitudinal reinforcement is safe

Provide 16# of 14 mm ø bars @ 160 mm c/c as main reinforcements on both directions

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Step 8 : Check for Development Length : CL 26.2.1, Pg – 42 – IS 456

Required Development Length, Development Length Ld =

Ø = Diameter of main bars = 14 mm

= Working stress in bars = 0.87 * fy = 0.87 = 415 = 361.05 N/mm2

= 1.2 * 1.6 = 1.92 N/mm2

Ld = = = 658.16 mm Ld = 658.16 mm

Available Development length,

Ld Available = = = 1.04 m Ld = 1040 mm

564.14 < 725

Required length < Available length
Hence the design is safe in Development length
Step 9 : Check for Load transfer at the base of column: CL 34.4, Pg – 65 – IS 456

Actual Bearing stress = = = 4.8N/mm2

Permissible Bearing stress = 0.45 √ and also √ <2

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Area of Column, A2 = 500 * 500 A2 = 250000mm2

Supporting Area of bearing, A1 = (800+500+800) * 2 A1=4.41 x 106 mm2

√ √

Hence the conditions unsatisfied, Adopt the maximum value of √ =2

Permissible Bearing stress = 0.45 * 20 * 2 = 18 N/mm2

4.8 < 18
Actual Bearing stress < Permissible Bearing stress
Hence the design is safe in load transfer from Column to Footing.

Step 10 : Detailing:

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3. Design an Rectangular Isolated footing of uniform thickness of RC column bearing a

vertical load of 600 kN and having a base size of 400 mm x 600 mm. The SBC of soil
may be taken as 120 kN/m2. Use M20 Concrete and Fe415 steel.
Given:

Load from the column (w) = 600 kN

Safe bearing capacity of soil (SBC) = 120 kN/m2

Size of the column = 400 x 600 mm

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = Fe415 fy = 415 N/mm2

Solution:

Step 1 : Load Calculation :

Load from the column = 600 kN/m

Self-weight of footing = 60 kN/m (10% of Actual load of structure)

Total load on Footing (w) = 660 kN/m

Step 2 : Dimensioning of Footing : (Length and Breadth of footing)

In-order to maintain equilibrium, the soil will be providing the resisting force equals to actual
amount of load offered by the structure.
SBC (Upward soil Pressure) of the soil = Pressure generated due to actual load on footing

SBC =

120 =

Af = Af = 5.5 m2

B*L = 5.5

Ratio of Breadth to Length of the column, B= L

L*L = 5.5

L2 = 8.25
L = 2.87 m L 3m

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B = L = *3 B 2m

Revised pressure on soil = = P0 = 100 kN/m2

Step 3 : Calculation of Bending Moment at Critical section : (CL [Link], Pg – 65 – IS 456)

 The entire footing can be considered to consists of 2 cantilevers each projecting and
having fixed support length of
 The maximum bending moment is considered to act at the face of the column, pedestal or
wall, for footings supporting a concrete column, pedestal or wall.

X - Axis Y - Axis

= = = 1.2 m = = = 0.8 m

M1 = = * (1.2*1.2) M2 = = *(0.8*0.8)

M1 = 144 kNm M1 = 96 kNm

Mu2 = 1.5 *96 = 144 kNm
Mu1 = 1.5 *144 = 216 kNm
Mu2 = 144 kNm
Mu1 = 216 kNm

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Step 4 : Dimensioning of Footing : (Depth of footing) : (CL G 1.1.c, Pg – 96 – IS 456)

216 x 106 = 0.138 * 20 * 2000 * 144 x 106 = 0.138 * 20 * 3000 *

= 197.81 mm = 131.87 mm

Take d 200 mm and Assume d’ = 60mm, Then D = d+d’ = 200 + 60 D = 260 mm

Step 5 : Check for Effective depth “d” based on Shear :

 The critical section for shear happens at a distance of “d” from face of the support
 Considering X-axis to be critical section
Critical section for shear (x) = –d = - (d x 10-3)

x = 1.2 – (d x 10-3) m

Maximum Shear at the critical section, V0 =

V0 =

V0 = 200000 *

Vu = 1.5 * 200000 *

Vu = 300000

Vu = 360000 – 300 d

Actual Shear stress, = =

= N/mm2

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Permissible Shear stress,

Assuming % Ast = 0.3 %, then as per Table - 19, Pg – 73 – IS 456

For M20 Concrete and 0.3% Ast

% Ast for M20 Concrete

0.25 0.36

0.48
N/mm2 0.50

Since “d” is not known, Consider Ks = 1

then Permissible Shear stress, = 1 * 0.384

N/mm2

Assuming Actual shear stress = Permissible shear stress

= 0.384

= 0.384 d
0.384d + 0.15d = 180
0.534 d = 180
d = = 337.07 mm

d 340 mm
Providing an effective cover as 60 mm to the main reinforcement,
D = d + d’
= 340 + 60
D = 400 mm

Finally, D 400 mm and d 340 mm

The final size of footing is 3000 * 2000 * 400 mm

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Step 6 : Check for Two way shear :

 The critical section for two-way shear happens at a distance of “d/2” from face of the support

X - Axis Y - Axis

Critical section for 2-way shear = Critical section for 2-way shear =

Lx = Ly =

= 940 mm = 740 mm
Pressure at Critical Section (V) = Pressure on whole footing – Pressure at center

= (100*3*2) – (100*0.94*0.74)

V = 530.44 kN

Vu = 1.5 * 530.44
Vu = 795.66 kN

Actual Shear stress, = =

= 0.696 N/mm2
Permissible Shear stress, As per Cl [Link], Pg – 58 – IS 456

1 = = 0.667

= 1.167 > 1 Hence Ks = 1

√ = 0.25 * √ 1.118 N/mm2

Permissible Shear stress, = 1 * 1.118 = 1.118 N/mm2

0.696 < 1.118

Actual shear stress < Permissible shear stress
Hence the design is safe in shear

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Step 7A : Design of Main Reinforcement (Longer Axis – X-Axis):

= * +
Mux = 216 x 106 kNm and d = 340 mm

216 x 106 = 0.87 * 415 * Ast * 340 * * +

216 x 106 = 122757 * Ast * [ ]

216 x 106 = 122757 Ast - 3.746

3.746 – 122757 Ast + 216 x 106 = 0

By Solving, Ast = 1865.80 mm2

Area of reinforcement required (Ast)Required = 1865.80 mm2

Let us provide 12 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

From Table - 95, Pg – 229 – SP16

For 12mm ø bars and Required Ast = 1865.80 mm2 n 17 Bars

From Table - 96, Pg – 230 – SP16

For 12mm ø bars and Required Ast = 1865.80 mm2 S = 60mm for /m width

For 2 m width of footing S = 60 * 2 = 120 mm S 120 mm c/c

Ast Provided = From Table 95 of SP 16

Ast Provided = 1922 mm2

Provide 17# of 12 mm ø bars @ 60 mm c/c as main reinforcements on Longer directions

Step 7B : Design of Main Reinforcement (Shorter Axis – Y-Axis): Cl 34.3, Pg – 65 – IS 456

= * +
Muy = 144 x 106 kNm and d = 340-12 = 328 mm

144 x 106 = 0.87 * 415 * Ast2 * 328 * * +

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144 x 106 = 118424.4 * Ast2 * [ ]

144 x 106 = 118.424.4 Ast2 - 2.4964

2.4964 – 118424.4 Ast2 + 144 x 106 = 0

By Solving, Ast = 1248.84 mm2

Area of reinforcement required in shorter direction (Ast)Required = 1248.84 mm2

This area is provided in 2 distinct band width – Central band and End bands

Total length of the band = 3m

Length of central band = (B) = 2m

Length of End band = 3–2 = 1m

Length of each end band = ½ = 0.5m

β = Ratio of longer side to shorter side of footing = 3/2 = 1.5

mm2

Let us provide 12 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

From Table - 95, Pg – 229 – SP16

For 12mm ø bars and Required Ast = 999.07 mm2 n 9 Bars

From Table - 96, Pg – 230 – SP16

For 12mm ø bars and Required Ast = 999.07 mm2 S = 110mm for /m width
For 2 m width of central band S = 110 * 2 = 220 mm S 220 mm c/c
Ast Provided = From Table 95 of SP 16
Ast Provided = 1017 mm2
Provide 9# of 12 mm ø bars @ 220 mm c/c as main reinforcements in central band of shorter
direction

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Area of reinforcement required in end bands of shorter direction = = 231.03mm2

Let us provide 12 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

From Table - 95, Pg – 229 – SP16

For 12mm ø bars and Required Ast = 231.03 mm2 n 3 Bars

Ast Provided = From Table 95 of SP 16

Ast Provided = 339 mm2

Provide 3# of 12 mm ø bars as main reinforcements in end band of shorter direction

Step 8 : Check for Development Length : CL 26.2.1, Pg – 42 – IS 456

Required Development Length,

Development Length Ld =

Ø = Diameter of main bars = 14 mm

= Working stress in bars = 0.87 * fy = 0.87 = 415 = 361.05 N/mm2

= 1.2 * 1.6 = 1.92 N/mm2

Ld = = = 564.14 mm Ld = 564.14 mm

Available Development length,

X-Axis Ld Available = = = 1.14 m Ld = 1140 mm

Y-Axis Ld Available = = = 0.74 m Ld = 740 mm

740 & 1140 < 564.14

Required length < Available length

Hence the design is safe in Development length

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Step 9 : Check for Load transfer at the base of column: CL 34.4, Pg – 65 – IS 456

Actual Bearing stress = = = 3.75N/mm2

Permissible Bearing stress = 0.45 √ and also √ <2

Area of Column, A2 = 400 * 600 A2 = 240000mm2

Supporting Area of bearing, A1 = (800+600+800) * (800+400+800)

A1 = 4.4 x 106 mm2

√ √

Hence the conditions unsatisfied, Adopt the maximum value of √ =2

Permissible Bearing stress = 0.45 * 20 * 2 = 18 N/mm2

3.75 < 18

Actual Bearing stress < Permissible Bearing stress

Hence the design is safe in load transfer from Column to Footing.

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Step 10 : Detailing:

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DESIGN OF ISOLATED SLOPED FOOTING

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4. Design an Isolated square footing – sloped for a column 500 mm x 500 mm

transmitting an axial load of 1200 kN. The column is reinforced with 8 bars of 20mm
diameter. The safe bearing capacity of soil is 12 tonnes/m2. Use M20 Concrete and
Fe415 steel.
Given:

Load from the column (w) = 1200 kN

Size of the column = 500 x 500 mm

Grade of concrete = M20 fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel = Fe415 fy = 415 N/mm2

Safe bearing capacity of soil (SBC) = 12 tonnes/m2

= 12 * 1000 kg/m2

= 12000 * 10 N/m2

SBC = 120 kN/m2

Solution:

Step 1 : Load Calculation :

Load from the column = 1200 kN/m

Self-weight of footing = 120 kN/m (10% of Actual load of structure)

Total load on Footing (w) = 1320 kN/m

Step 2 : Dimensioning of Footing : (Length and Breadth of footing)

In-order to maintain equilibrium, the soil will be providing the resisting force equals to actual
amount of load offered by the structure.
SBC (Upward soil Pressure) of the soil = Pressure generated due to actual load on footing

SBC =

120 =

Af = Af = 11 m2

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B*L = 11 (B=L since it is square column)

B*B = 11
B = 3.31 m B=L 3.4 m

Revised pressure on soil = = P0 = 103.80 kN/m2

Step 3 : Calculation of Bending Moment at Critical section : (CL [Link], Pg – 65 – IS 456)

 The entire footing can be considered to consists of 2 cantilevers each projecting and
having fixed support length of
 The maximum bending moment is considered to act at the face of the column, pedestal or
wall, for footings supporting a concrete column, pedestal or wall.

Cantilever projection (x) = = = 1.45 m x = 1.45 m

Actual SBC below the column = P0 B = 103.80 * 3.4 = 352.92 kN/m

Maximum moment at the critical section, M0 =

M0 = M0 = 371 kNm

Mu = 1.5 * 371 Mu = 556.5 kNm

The section of footing at the column face will be Trapezoidal.

Let effective depth at column face is “d”

Effective depth at edges is “0.2d”

Breadth of the footing at top is “b1”

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Step 4 : Dimensioning of Footing : (Depth of footing) : (CL G 1.1.c, Pg – 96 – IS 456)

= ( )( )

From Cl 38.1, Pg – 70 – IS 456, = 0.48 (For Fe415 steel)

Breadth of the footing at top be equals column width, b = 500 mm

556.5 x 106 =

556.5 x 106 = 1379.64

= = 403366.1

d = 635.03 mm d 640 mm
Providing an effective cover as 60 mm to the main reinforcement,
D = d + d’
= 640 + 60
D = 700 mm
Effective depth of the footings at edges = 0.2 * d = 0.2 * 640 = 128 mm d 140 mm
Providing an effective cover as 60 mm to the main reinforcement,
D = d + d’
= 140 + 60
D = 200 mm
Provide D 700 mm and d 640 mm at face of the column
Provide D 200 mm and d 140 mm at edge of the footing

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Step 5 : Check for One way Shear :

 The critical section for shear happens at a distance of “d” from face of the support

Critical section for shear (x) = –d = - 0.64

x = 0.81 m

Maximum Shear at the critical section, V0 =

V0 =

V0 = 285.865 kN

Vu = 1.5 * 285.865

Vu = 428.8 kN

Maximum Moment at the critical section, M0 =

M0 =
M0 = 115.78 kNm

Resisting width of footing for shear, b’ = Width of column + 2*D

= 500 + 2 * 700
b’ = 1900 mm
Depth of the section at critical section, d = 479 mm (By similar triangles)
Value of β from the figure, tan β= 500/1450, tan β = 0.345

Actual Shear stress, =

( )

=
= 0.379 N/mm2

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Permissible Shear stress,

Assuming % Ast = 0.3 %, then as per Table - 19, Pg – 73 – IS 456

For M20 Concrete and 0.3% Ast

% Ast for M20 Concrete

0.25 0.36

0.48
N/mm2 0.50
Since “d” is not known, Consider Ks = 1
then Permissible Shear stress, = 1 * 0.384
N/mm2

0.352 < 0.384

Actual shear stress < Permissible shear stress
Hence the design is safe in shear

Step 6 : Check for Two way shear :

 The critical section for two-way shear happens at a distance of “d/2” from face of the support

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Size of Critical section for two-way shear =

Size of Critical section for two-way shear = 1140 mm

Pressure at Critical Section (V) = Pressure on whole footing – Pressure at center

= (103.80 * 3.4 * 3.4) – (103.80 * 1.14 * 1.14)

V = 1065.03 kN

Factored Shear force, Vu = 1.5 * 1065.03

Vu = 1597.54 kN

Actual Shear stress, = =

=
= 0.35 N/mm2
Permissible Shear stress,

As per Cl [Link], Pg – 58 – IS 456

1 = =1

= 1.5 > 1 Hence Ks = 1

√ = 0.25 * √ 1.118 N/mm2

Permissible Shear stress, = 1 * 1.118 = 1.118 N/mm2

0.35 < 1.118

Actual shear stress < Permissible shear stress
Hence the design is safe in shear

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Step 6 : Design of Main Reinforcement :

= * +

556.5 x 106 = 0.87 * 415 * Ast * 640 * * +

556.5 x 106 = 231072 * Ast * [ ]

556.5 x 106 = 231072 Ast - 2.2035
2.2035 – 231072 Ast + 556.5 x 106 = 0
By Solving, Ast = 2466.35 mm2

Area of reinforcement required (Ast)Required = 2466.35 mm2

Let us provide 14 mm diameter bars as longitudinal reinforcement

From Table - 95, Pg – 229 – SP16

For 12mm ø bars and Required Ast = 2466.35 mm2 n 17 Bars

From Table - 96, Pg – 230 – SP16

For 12mm ø bars and Required Ast = 2466.35 mm2 S = 60mm for /m width

For 3.4 m width of central band S = 60 * 3.4 = 204 mm S 210 mm c/c

Ast Provided = From Table 95 of SP 16

Ast Provided = 2617 mm2

Provide 16# of 14 mm ø bars @ 210 mm c/c as main reinforcements on both directions

Step 7 : Check for Development Length : CL 26.2.1, Pg – 42 – IS 456

Required Development Length, Development Length Ld =

Ø = Diameter of main bars = 14 mm

= Working stress in bars = 0.87 * fy = 0.87 = 415 = 361.05 N/mm2

= 1.2 * 1.6 = 1.92 N/mm2

Ld = = = 658.16 mm Ld = 658.16 mm

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Available Development length,

Ld Available = = = 1.39 m Ld = 1390 mm

658.16 < 1390

Required length < Available length

Hence the design is safe in Development length

Step 8 : Check for Load transfer at the base of column: CL 34.4, Pg – 65 – IS 456

Actual Bearing stress = = = 7.2N/mm2

Permissible Bearing stress = 0.45 √ and also √ <2

Area of Column, A2 = 500 * 500 A2 = 250000mm2

Supporting Area of bearing, A1 = (1400+500+1400) * 2

A1 = 1,08,90,000 mm2

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√ √

Hence the conditions unsatisfied, Adopt the maximum value of √ =2

Permissible Bearing stress = 0.45 * 20 * 2 = 18 N/mm2

7.2 < 18

Actual Bearing stress < Permissible Bearing stress

Hence the design is safe in load transfer from Column to Footing.

Step 9 : Detailing:

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DESIGN OF COMBINED FOOTING

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DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL

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Design a cantilever retaining wall to retain an earth embankment 4m high above the ground
level. The density of earth is 18 kN/m3 and its angle of repose is 30degree. The embankment is
horizontal at top. The SBC of the soil may be taken as 200kN/m2 and the coefficient of friction
between soil and concrete is 0.5. adopt M20 concrete and Fe 415 HYSD bars.

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