1.
Discovery of Electron
• Discoverer: J.J. Thomson in 1897.
• Experiment: Cathode Ray Discharge Tube experiment. A glass tube with two metal
electrodes was filled with a gas at very low pressure, and a high voltage was applied
across the electrodes.
• Observations:
1. Rays (called cathode rays) traveled from the negative electrode (cathode) to
the positive electrode (anode).
2. These rays were invisible but their presence was detected by their effect on a
fluorescent screen (coated with zinc sulphide) placed behind the anode.
3. In the absence of electric or magnetic fields, they traveled in straight lines.
4. When an electric or magnetic field was applied, the rays were deflected,
proving they consisted of charged particles. The direction of deflection showed
the particles were negatively charged.
5. The characteristics of these rays did not depend on the material of the
electrodes or the nature of the gas in the tube.
• Conclusion: The negatively charged particles were fundamental constituents of all
atoms. These particles were named electrons.
• Charge-to-Mass Ratio (e/m): Thomson was able to determine the ratio of the
electron's charge (e) to its mass (m). The value was found to be 1.758820 × 10¹¹ C/kg.
2. Discovery of Proton and Neutron
• Proton (p⁺):
o Discovery: E. Goldstein performed a modified cathode ray tube experiment
and observed new rays traveling in the opposite direction to cathode rays.
These were called canal rays or anode rays.
o Properties:
1. They were positively charged gaseous ions.
2. Unlike electrons, the charge-to-mass ratio of these particles depended
on the gas inside the tube.
3. The lightest and simplest positive ion was obtained from hydrogen gas
and was named the proton by Rutherford.
o A proton has a positive charge (+1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C) and a mass of 1.672 × 10⁻²⁷ kg.
• Neutron (n⁰):
o Discovery: James Chadwick in 1932. The existence of a neutral particle was
necessary to explain the difference between an atom's atomic number and its
atomic mass.
o Experiment: Chadwick bombarded a thin sheet of beryllium with α-particles
(alpha particles).
o Observation: Electrically neutral particles were emitted which had a mass
slightly greater than that of a proton.
o Conclusion: This neutral particle was named the neutron. It resides in the
nucleus along with protons.
3. Atomic Number and Mass Number
• Atomic Number (Z):
o Defined by Henry Moseley.
o It is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
o It is the fundamental property of an element, as it defines the element's
identity.
o In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
o Z = Number of protons
• Mass Number (A):
o It is the total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus. Protons
and neutrons are collectively known as nucleons.
o A = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = Z + n
4. Isotopes and Isobars
• Isotopes:
o Definition: Atoms of the same element having the same atomic number (Z)
but a different mass number (A).
o They have the same number of protons and electrons, but a different number
of neutrons.
o Since they have the same number of electrons, they show identical chemical
properties.
o They have different physical properties like mass, density, and boiling point.
o Examples:
▪ Hydrogen: ¹H (Protium), ²H (Deuterium), ³H (Tritium).
▪ Carbon: ¹²C, ¹³C, ¹⁴C.
• Isobars:
o Definition: Atoms of different elements having the same mass number (A) but
a different atomic number (Z).
o They have different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
o Since they are different elements, they have different chemical and physical
properties.
o Example: ⁴⁰Ar (Argon) and ⁴⁰Ca (Calcium). Both have a mass number of 40, but
Argon has 18 protons and Calcium has 20 protons.
5. Thomson's Model and Its Limitations
• The Model (Plum Pudding or Watermelon Model):
1. An atom is a sphere of uniform positive charge.
2. The negatively charged electrons are embedded within this positive sphere,
much like plums in a pudding or seeds in a watermelon.
3. The atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the total positive charge is
equal to the total negative charge.
• Limitations:
1. It failed to explain the results of the Rutherford alpha-particle scattering
experiment. It could not explain why most alpha particles passed through
undeflected while a few bounced back.
2. It could not explain the stability of an atom or the presence of a central
nucleus.
3. It could not explain the line spectra of atoms.
6. Rutherford's Model and Its Limitations
• The Experiment (Alpha-Particle Scattering or Gold Foil Experiment):
o A beam of high-energy α-particles (Helium nuclei, He²⁺) was directed at a very
thin gold foil.
o Observations:
1. Most (≈99.9%) of the α-particles passed straight through the foil
undeflected.
2. A small fraction of α-particles were deflected by small angles.
3. A very few (about 1 in 20,000) bounced back, deflecting by nearly 180°.
• The Model (Nuclear Model of the Atom):
1. Nucleus: Most of the atom's mass and its entire positive charge are concentrated in a
very small, dense region at the center called the nucleus.
2. Empty Space: Most of the atom is empty space, which explains why most α-particles
passed through undeflected.
3. Orbits: Electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined circular paths called
orbits, similar to how planets revolve around the sun. The electrostatic force of attraction
between the nucleus and electrons holds the atom together.
• Limitations:
1. Instability of the Atom: According to Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, any
accelerating charged particle (like an electron in orbit) must radiate energy continuously.
This would cause the electron to lose energy, follow a spiral path, and eventually fall into
the nucleus, making the atom collapse. This does not happen.
2. Inability to Explain Spectra: If the electron loses energy continuously, the atom
should produce a continuous spectrum. However, atoms produce a line spectrum, with light
emitted only at specific frequencies. Rutherford's model could not explain this.
7. Development Leading to the Bohr’s Model of Atom
Two key developments paved the way for Bohr's model:
1. Dual Character of Electromagnetic Radiation: Evidence showed that light behaves
not only as a wave but also as a stream of particles.
2. Atomic Spectra: Experimental results showed that atoms emit and absorb radiation
only at specific, discrete frequencies (line spectra), suggesting that energy levels
within an atom are quantized (restricted to certain values).
8. Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Proposed by James Maxwell.
• Electromagnetic radiation consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation.
• These waves do not require a medium and can travel through a vacuum at the speed
of light (c = 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s).
• Characteristics:
o Wavelength (λ): Distance between two consecutive crests or troughs.
o Frequency (ν): Number of waves passing a point per second (Unit: Hertz, Hz or
s⁻¹).
o Wave Number (ν̄): Number of wavelengths per unit length (ν̄ = 1/λ).
• Relationship: The speed of light is the product of frequency and wavelength: c = νλ.
9. Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation: Planck’s Quantum Theory
• Proposed by Max Planck to explain black-body radiation.
• Key Postulates:
1. Energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously, but discontinuously in the
form of tiny, discrete packets of energy called quanta (singular: quantum).
2. For light, the smallest quantum of energy is called a photon.
3. The energy (E) of a single quantum is directly proportional to the frequency (ν)
of the radiation.
o E = hν
o where h is Planck's Constant (6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s).
6. The total amount of energy absorbed or emitted by a body is always some
whole-number multiple of a quantum: E = nhν, where n is an integer (1, 2, 3...).
This means energy is quantized.
10. Photoelectric Effect
• Definition: The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal
when light of a suitable frequency shines on it. The ejected electrons are called
photoelectrons.
• Key Observations:
1. The ejection of electrons is instantaneous.
2. For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum frequency, called the
threshold frequency (ν₀), below which no photoelectrons are emitted, no
matter how intense the light is.
3. The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of the incident light (and independent of its intensity).
4. The number of photoelectrons ejected per second is directly proportional to
the intensity (brightness) of the incident light.
• Einstein's Explanation: Using Planck's theory, Einstein explained that light consists of
photons (E = hν).
o A photon's energy is used in two parts:
1. A portion is used to overcome the forces holding the electron in the
metal. This minimum energy is called the work function (W₀), where W₀
= hν₀.
2. The rest of the energy is converted into the kinetic energy (K.E.) of the
ejected electron.
o Equation: hν = W₀ + K.E. or hν = hν₀ + ½mv²
11. Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Electromagnetic radiation exhibits a dual nature. In some phenomena, it behaves as a
wave (e.g., diffraction, interference), while in others, it behaves as a stream of
particles (e.g., photoelectric effect, black-body radiation).
• The two aspects are complementary; light behaves as either a wave or a particle
depending on the experiment being performed.
12. Atomic Spectra
• The spectrum of radiation emitted or absorbed by a substance is called its atomic
spectrum.
• It serves as a "fingerprint" for an element, as each element has a unique spectrum.
13. Emission and Absorption Spectra
• Emission Spectrum:
o Produced when radiation emitted from a substance (that has absorbed energy,
e.g., by heating) is passed through a prism.
o It consists of bright lines or bands on a dark background.
o This happens when an excited electron returns to a lower energy level, emitting
a photon of a specific energy (wavelength).
• Absorption Spectrum:
o Produced when white light is passed through a substance (usually a cool gas),
and the transmitted light is analyzed with a prism.
o It consists of dark lines or bands on an otherwise continuous (bright) spectrum.
o This happens when atoms absorb photons of specific energies (wavelengths) to
promote electrons to higher energy levels. The dark lines correspond exactly to
the wavelengths of the bright lines in the emission spectrum of the same
substance.
14. Line Spectrum
• Also known as an atomic spectrum.
• It is a type of emission spectrum that is not continuous but consists of a series of
sharp, discrete, well-defined lines of specific frequencies (or wavelengths).
• Each line in the spectrum corresponds to a specific electronic transition between two
energy levels in an atom.
• The existence of line spectra was strong evidence that the energy of electrons in
atoms is quantized and not continuous, a key flaw in Rutherford's model that Bohr's
model would later address. The line spectrum of hydrogen is a classic example.