GENERAL

CHEMISTRY
Principles and Modern Applications TENTH EDITION

PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE

Chapter 2:
Atoms and the Atomic Theory
Slide 1 of 25 General Chemistry: Chapter 1
Law of conservation of mass:
Lavoisier 1774
- a sealed glass vessel containing a sample of tin and some air
- the mass before heating and after heating were the same
- the product of the reaction, tin calx (tin oxide), consisted of the original tin
together with a portion of the air.
- oxygen from air is essential to combustion, and also led him to formulate
the law of conservation of mass:

The total mass of substances present after a chemical reaction is the

same as the total mass of substances before the reaction.

Slide 4 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 Mass is conserved during a chemical reaction

Silver Nitrate + potassium chromate  silver chromate

FIGURE 2-2

law of conservation of mass says that matter is

neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Slide 5 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Slide 5 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Law of constant composition / Law of definite proportions

All samples of a compound have the same composition

- the same proportions by mass of the constituent
elements.

Sample A and Its Composition Sample B and Its composition

10.000 g 27.000 g
1.119 g H, %H = 11.19 3.021 g H % H = 11.19
8.881 g O %O = 88.81 23.979 g O % O = 88.81

Slide 6 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 7 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
- The law of multiple proportions.

If two elements form more than a single compound, the masses of one
element combined with a fixed mass of the second are in the ratio of
small whole numbers.

• In forming carbon monoxide, 1.0 g of

carbon combines with 1.33 g of oxygen.

• In forming carbon dioxide, 1.0 g of carbon

combines with 2.66 g of oxygen.

CO and CO2 1:1 and 1:2

Figure 2-3
Consequences of Dalton’s theory
Slide 8 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Rutherford’s nuclear atom model:
 The large-angle scattering greatly puzzled Rutherford. As he commented
some years later, this observation was about as credible as if you had fired
a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.

 By 1911, Rutherford had an explanation. He based his explanation on a

model of the atom known as the nuclear atom and having these features
1. Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of an atom are
centered in a very small region called the nucleus. The remainder
of the atom is mostly empty space.
2. The magnitude of the positive charge is different for different
atoms and is approximately one-half the atomic weight of the
element.
3. There are as many electrons outside the nucleus as there are
units of positive charge on the nucleus. The atom as a whole is
electrically neutral.

Slide 9 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

• The masses of the proton and neutron are different in the fourth
significant figure.
• The charges of the proton and electron, however, are believed to be
exactly equal in magnitude (but opposite in sign).
• The charges and masses are known much more precisely than
suggested here. More precise values are given on the inside back cover.

Slide 10 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

2-4 Chemical Elements
All atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number, Z, and,
conversely, all atoms with the same number of protons are atoms of the
same element. The elements shown on the inside front cover have atomic
numbers from Z:1 to Z:112.
🞷 To represent a particular atom we use symbolism:
- Chemical symbols are one- or two-letter abbreviations of the name
(usually the English name).
- The first (but never the second) letter of the symbol is capitalized; for
example: carbon, C; oxygen, O; neon, Ne; and silicon, Si.
- Some elements known since ancient times have symbols based on their
Latin names, such as Fe for iron ( ferrum ) and Pb for lead ( plumbum).
- The element sodium has the symbol Na, based on the Latin Natrium for
sodium carbonate. Potassium has the symbol K, based on the Latin Kalium
for potassium carbonate. The symbol for tungsten, W, is based on the
German wolfram.
- Elements beyond uranium do not occur naturally and must be synthesized
in particle accelerators
Slide 11 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
A= mass number Z = atomic number

This symbolism indicates that the atom is element E and that it has atomic
number Z and mass number A .
For example, an atom of aluminum represented as 13Al27
has 13 protons and 14 neutrons in its nucleus and 13 electrons outside the
nucleus. (Recall that an atom has the same number of electrons as protons.

Contrary to what Dalton thought, we now know that atoms of an

element do not necessarily all have the same mass.

Slide 12 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Isotopes:
 Atoms that have the same atomic number (Z) but different mass numbers
(A) are called isotopes.

 All neon atoms have 10 protons in their nuclei, and most have 10 neutrons
as well. A very few neon atoms, however, have 11 neutrons and some have
12.

 Of all Ne atoms on Earth, 90.51% are 20Ne10 . These percentages

90.51%, 0.27%, 9.22% are the percent natural abundances of the three
neon isotopes.

 Percent natural abundances are always based on numbers, not masses.

Thus, 9051 of every 10,000 neon atoms are neon-20 atoms.

 Some elements, as they exist in nature, consist of just a single type of

atom and therefore do not have naturally occurring isotopes. Aluminum, for
example, consists only of aluminum-27 atoms.
Slide 13 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Ions:
• When atoms lose or gain electrons, for example, in the course of a
chemical reaction, the species formed are called ions and carry net
charges. Because an electron is negatively charged, adding electrons
to an electrically neutral atom produces a negatively charged ion.
Removing electrons results in a positively charged ion.
• The number of protons does not change when an atom becomes an
ion.

Slide 14 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 15 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Isotopic Masses:
• We cannot determine the mass of an individual atom just by adding
up the masses of its fundamental particles. When protons and
neutrons combine to form a nucleus, a very small portion of their
original mass is converted to energy and released. However, we
cannot predict exactly how much this so called nuclear binding
energy will be. Determining the masses of individual atoms, then, is
something that must be done by experiment, in the following way.
• By international agreement, one type of atom has been chosen and
assigned a specific mass. This standard is an atom of the isotope
carbon-12, which is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass
units, that is, 12 u. Next,the masses of other atoms relative to carbon-
12 are determined with a mass spectrometer.

Slide 16 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

2-5 Atomic Mass
For Carbon, the existence of two
Weighted Average isotopes causes the observed atomic
Atomic Mass of an mass to be greater than 12.
Element fractional atomic fractional atomic
abundance mass of + abundance
= of isotope 1 x x mass of + … …
isotope 1 of isotope 2 isotope 2

Aave = 1 x A1 + 2 x A2 +… … n x An

where 1 + 2+ + n = 1.0

at. mass of naturally

occurring carbon = 0.9893 * 12 u + (1 - 0.9893) * 13.0033548378 u

= 13.0033548378 u - 0.9893

= 12.0107 u
Slide 33 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
The Periodic Table:
• We can distinguish one element from all others by its particular set of
observable physical properties.
• Periodic Table is the classification system, in which we can;
* read atomic masses,
* read the ions formed by main group elements,
* read the electron configuration.
* learn trends in physical and chemical properties.

 In the periodic table, elements are listed according to increasing atomic

number starting at the upper left and arranged in a series of horizontal
rows,called periods.
 This arrangement places similar elements in vertical groups, or families
The elements can also be subdivided into broad categories.
 One categorization is that of metals, nonmetals, metalloids, and noble
gases.
 Another is that of maingroup elements and transition elements
(transition metals). Included among the transition elements are the
twoSlide
subcategories
34 of 27 lanthanides and
General actinides.
Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Alkali Metals The Periodic table Noble Gases

Alkaline Earths Main Group

Halogens

Transition Metals

Main Group Lanthanides and Actinides

Slide 19 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Metals; (except for mercury, a liquid,)
- solids at room temperature.
- malleable (capable of being flattened into thin sheets),
- ductile (capable of being drawn into fine wires),
- good conductors of heat and electricity,
- have a lustrous or shiny appearance.
- maingroup metal atoms in groups 1 and 2 form ions, they lose the same
number of electrons as the IUPAC group number. Na+ and Ca++

Nonmetals ;
- are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
- several of the nonmetals, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine, are
gases at room temperature.
- Some, such as silicon and sulfur, are brittle solids. One bromine is a
liquid.
- nonmetal atoms form ions, they gain electrons. O2- , Cl-

Slide 20 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

2-7 The Concept of the Mole and the Avogadro
Constant
- Physically counting atoms is impossible.
- We must be able to relate measured mass to numbers of
atoms.
- The SI quantity that describes an amount of substance by
relating it to a number of particles of that substance is called
the mole (abbreviated mol).
• A mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of
elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12.
• The number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, and so on) in a mole
is the Avogadro constant, NA

NA = 6.02214179 x 1023 mol-1

If a substance contains atoms of only a single isotope, then

1 mol 12C = 6.02214 * 1023 12C atoms = 12.0000 g
1 mol 16O = 6.02214 * 1023 16O atoms = 15.9949 g
• - However, most elements are composed of mixtures of
two or more isotopes so that the atoms in a sample of the
element are not all of the same mass but are present in
their naturally occurring proportions: Thus, in one mole of
carbon, most of the atoms are carbon-12, but some are
carbon-13. In one mole of oxygen, most of the atoms are
oxygen-16, but some are oxygen-17 and some are
oxygen-18. As a result,

1 mol of C = 6.02214 * 1023 C atoms = 12.0107 g

1 mol of O = 6.02214 * 1023 O atoms = 15.9994 g, and so on.

Slide 22 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Distribution of isotopes in four elements:

(a) There is only one type of fluorine atom, 19F (shown in red).
(b) In chlorine, 75.77% of the atoms are 35Cl (red) and the remainder are 37Cl (blue).
(c) Magnesium has one principal isotope, 24Mg (red), and two minor ones, 25Mg(gray)
and 26Mg (blue).
(d) Lead has four naturally occurring isotopes: 1.4% 204Pb(yellow), 24.1% 206Pb
(blue), 22.1% 207Pb (gray) and 52.4% 208Pb (red).

Slide 23 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Molar Mass:
The molar mass, M, is the mass of one mole of a substance.
M (g/mol 12C) = A (g/atom 12C) x NA (atoms 12C /mol 12C)

One mole of an element :

The watch glasses contain one
mole of copper atoms (left) and
one mole of sulfur atoms (right).
The beaker contains one mole of
mercury atoms as liquid mercury,
and the balloon, of which only a
small portion is visible here,
contains one mole of helium
atoms in the gaseous state.

Slide 24 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

2-8 Using the Mole Concept in Calculations
1 mol S =
6.022 * 1023 S
atoms
1 mol S=
32.065 g S

Slide 25 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2

Slide 43 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
 Question 1

Convert the following to the number of moles:

(a) 4.82 × 1022 atoms of Cl
(b) 2.22 g of copper atoms
(c) 1.11 × 1024helium atoms
(d) 8.96 μg of iron atoms
 Question 2

Find the number of atoms:

(a) 397 mol Xe

(b) 18.3 μg Sc
(c) 12.8 pg Li
(d) 3.78 × 10−4mol Ar
 Question 3

Find their masses in micrograms:

(a) 3.77 × 1018 Na atoms

(b) 8.22 μmol U
(c) 0.000006020 mol K
(d) 6.02 × 1023 B atoms
 Question 4

Find the number of moles of the following:

(a) CN⁻ ions in 1.00 g of KCN

(b) H⁺ ions in 200 mg of H₂O
(c) CaCO₃ units (formula units) in 500 g of CaCO₃
(3 significant figures)
(d) H₂O molecules in 5.00 g of La₂(SO₄)₃·9H₂O
 Question 5

Aspartame (C₁₄H₁₈N₂O₅) is an artificial sweetener.

(a) How many molecules are there in 1.0 mg of this compound?
(b) What are the mass percentages of the elements in aspartame?
 Question 6

Magnesium has three naturally occurring isotopes. Their natural abundances

and atomic masses are as follows:
•78.99% → 23.985042 akb
•10.00% → 24.985837 akb
•11.01% → 25.982593 akb
Calculate the weighted average atomic mass of magnesium.
 Question 7

How many Cu atoms are there in a copper wire that is 1 m long, has a
diameter of 0.03196 inches, and a density of 8.92 g/cm³?
(Cu: 63.5 g/mol)