Synchronous Generator or

Alternator
It is known that the electric supply used now-a-days for commercial, as
well as domestic purposes, is of alternating [Link] to d.c machines,
the a.c machines associated with alternating voltages, are also classified
as generators and motors.

Machines generating ac EMF are called alternators or synchronous

generators. While the machines accepting input from a.c supply to
produce a mechanical output are called synchronous [Link] these
machines work at a specific constant speed called synchronous speed and
hence is general called synchronous machines.
Difference between DC Generator and Alternator:-
It is seen that in the case of a D.C generator, basically, the nature of the
induced e.m.f in the armature conductors is of alternating type. By using
commutator and brush assembly it is converted to d.c and made available
to the external circuit.

If commutator is dropped from a d.c generator and induced e.m.f is

tapped from an armature directly outside, the nature of such emf will be
alternating. Such a machine without a commutator, providing an a.c emf
to the external circuit is called an alternator.

Construction of Synchronous generator or

alternator:
In Synchronous generator or alternators the stationary winding is
called 'stator' while the rotating winding is called 'Rotor'.
Stator:

The stator in the synchronous generator is a stationary [Link]

consists of a core and the slots to hold the armature winding similar to
the armature of a d.c [Link] stator core uses a laminated
[Link] is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each
other with varnish or [Link] laminated construction is basically to
keep down eddy current losses.

Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis

[Link] entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel [Link]
core has slots on its periphery for housing the armature [Link]
frame does not carry any flux and serves as the support to the
[Link] is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame.

Rotor:
There are two types of rotors used in the synchronous
generators or alternators:
Salient pole rotor
2)Smooth cylindrical rotor

1) Salient pole rotor:

This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out
from the surface of the [Link] poles are built up of thick steel
[Link] poles are bolted to the rotor as shown in the [Link]
pole face has been given a specific [Link] field winding is provided on
the pole [Link] rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths.

The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on
the rotating member of the machine. As the mechanical strength of salient
pole type is less, this is preferred for low-speed alternators ranging from
125 r.p.m to 50 [Link] prime movers used to drive such rotor are
generally water turbines and I.C. engines.

2)Smooth cylindrical rotor:

 This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or
round [Link] rotor consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a
number of slots to accommodate the field [Link] slots are covered at
the top with the help of steel or manganese [Link] unslotted portions
of the cylinder itself act as the [Link] poles are not projecting out and
the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains a uniform air gap
between stator and rotor.

These rotors have small diameters and large axial [Link] is to keep
peripheral speed within [Link] main advantage of this type is that these
are mechanically very strong and thus preferred for high-
speed alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high-
speed alternators are called 'turbo-alternators'.The prime movers used to
drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines, electric motors.

Working Principle of Synchronous generator :

The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When there is a relative motion between the conductors and the flux, emf
gets induced in the conductors. The dc generators also work on the same
principle. The only difference in the practical synchronous generator and
a dc generator is that in an alternator the conductors are stationary and
field is rotating. But for understanding, the purpose we can always consider
relative motion of conductors w.r.t the flux produced by the field winding.
Consider a relative motion of a single conductor under the
magnetic field produced by two stationary poles. The magnetic axis of two
poles produced by field is vertical, shown dotted in below figure.
Let conductor starts rotating from position [Link] this instant, the entire
velocity component is parallel to the flux lines. Hence there is no cutting of
flux lines by the conductor. So d@/dt at this instant is zero and hence
induced emf in the conductor is also zero. As the conductor moves from
position 1 to position 2, the part of the velocity component becomes
perpendicular to the flux lines and proportional to that, emf gets induced in
the conductor. The magnitude of such an induced emf increases as conductor
moves from position 1 to 2.

At position 2, the entire velocity component is perpendicular to the flux lines.

Hence there exists cutting of the flux lines. And at this instant, the induced
emf in the conductor is at its maximum. As the position of conductor changes
from 2 to 3, the velocity component perpendicular to the flux starts
decreasing and hence induced emf magnitude also starts [Link]
position 3, again the entire velocity component is parallel to the flux lines
and hence at this instant induced emf in the conductor is zero.

As the conductor moves from 3 to 4, velocity component perpendicular to the

flux lines again starts increasing. But the direction of velocity component now
is opposite to the direction of velocity component existing during
the movement of the conductor from position 1 to [Link] an induced emf in
the conductor increase but in the opposite direction.
 At position 4, it achieves maxima in the opposite direction, as the
entire velocity component becomes perpendicular to flux lines. Again
from position 4 to 1, induced emf decreases and finally at the position
again becomes zero. This cycle continues as conductor rotates at a certain
speed. So if we plot the magnitudes of the induced emf against the time,
we get an alternating nature of the induced emf shown figure above. This
is the working principle of Synchronous generator or Alternator.

Winding Factor | Pitch Factor | Distribution Factor

Before knowing about, winding factor, we should know about pitch factor
and distribution factor, since winding factor is the product of pitch factor
and distribution factor.
If we denote winding factor with Kw, pitch factor with Kp and distribution
factor with Kd, we can write

The pitch factor and distribution factor are explained below one by one.
Pitch Factor
In short pitched coil, the induced emf of two coil sides get vectorially added and
give resultant emf of the loop. In short pitched coil, the phase angle between the
induced emf of two opposite coil sides is less than 180o (electrical). But we
know that, in full pitched coil, the phase angle between the induced emf of two
coil sides is exactly 180o (electrical).
Hence, the resultant emf of a full pitched coil is just the arithmetic sum of the
emfs induced on both sides of the loop. We well know that vector sum or phasor
sum of two quantities is always less than their arithmetic sum. The pitch factor
is the measure of resultant emf of a short-pitched coil in comparison with
resultant emf of a full pitched coil.
Hence, it must be the ratio of phasor sum of induced emfs per coil to the
arithmetic sum of induced emfs per coil. Therefore, it must be less than
unity.
Let us assume that, a coil is short pitched by an angle α (electrical degree).
Emf induced per coil side is E. The arithmetic sum of induced emfs is 2E.
That means, 2E, is the induced voltage across the coil terminals, if the coil
would have been full pitched.
Now, come to the short pitched coil. From the figure below it is clear that,
resultant emf of the short pitched coil

Now, as per definition of pitched factor,

This pitch factor is the fundamental component of emf. The flux wave
may consist of space field harmonics also, which give rise to the
corresponding time harmonics in the generated voltage waveform. A 3rd
harmonic component of the flux wave, may be imagined as produced by
three poles as compared to one pole for the fundamental component.
In the view of this, the chording angle for the rth harmonic becomes r
times the chording angle for the fundamental component and pitch
factor for the rth harmonic is given as,

The rth harmonic becomes zero, if,

In 3 phase alternator, the 3rd harmonic is suppressed by star or delta

connection as in the case of 3 phase transformer. Total attention is given
for designing a 3 phase alternator winding design, for 5th and 7th
harmonics.

Distribution Factor
If all the coil sides of any one phase under one pole are bunched in
one slot, the winding obtained is known as concentrated winding and
the total emf induced is equal to the arithmetic sum of the emfs
induced in all the coils of one phase under one pole.
But in practical cases, for obtaining smooth sinusoidal voltage
waveform, armature winding of alternator is not concentrated but
distributed among the different slots to form polar groups under each
pole. In distributed winding, coil sides per phase are displaced from
each other by an angle equal to the angular displacement of the
adjacent slots. Hence, the induced emf per coil side is not an angle
equal to the angular displacement of the slots.
So, the resultant emf of the winding is the phasor sum of the induced
emf per coil side. As it is phasor sum, must be less than the arithmetic
sum of these induced emfs.
Resultant emf would be an arithmetic sum if the winding would have been
a concentrated one.
As per definition, distribution factor is a measure of resultant emf of a
distributed winding in compared to a concentrated winding.

We express it as the ratio of the phasor sum of the emfs induced in all
the coils distributed in some slots under one pole to the arithmetic sum
of the emfs induced. Distribution factor is,

EMF EQUATION

This induced EMF can be found by the EMF equation of the

alternator which as follow:
Lets,
P = No. of poles
Z = No. of Conductors or Coil sides in series/phase i.e. Z = 2T…Where T
is the number of coils or turns per phase (Note that one turn or coil has
two ends or sides)
f = frequency of induced EMF in Hz
Φ = Flux per pole (Weber)
N = rotor speed (RPM

Kd= Distribution factor

K or K = Cos α/2
c P

If induced EMF is assumed sinusoidal then,

Kf = Form factor = 1.11
In one revolution of the rotor i.e. in 60/N seconds, each conductor is cut
by a flux of ΦP Webers.
dΦ = ΦP and also dΦ = 60/N seconds
 then induced e.m.f per conductor ( average) =

But we know that:

f = PN / 120 or N= 120f / P
Putting the value of N in Equation (i), we get,
Average value of EMF per conductor =

∴ (N= 120f/P)
If there are Z conductors in series per phase,
then average e.m.f per phase = 2 f Φ Z Volts = 4 f ΦT Volts ….. (Z=2T)
Also we know that;
Form Factor= RMS Value / Average Value
= RMS value= Form factor x Average Value,
= 1.11 x 4fΦT = 4.44fΦT Volts.
And the actual available voltage per phase
= 4 Kc Kd f ΦT = 4 Kf Kc Kd f ΦT Volts.
Note: If alternator or AC generator is star connected as usually the case,
then the Line Voltage is √3 times the phase voltage as derived from the
the above formula.

VOLTAGE REGULATION:-
The voltage regulation is given by the equation shown below.

Where,

• |Ea| is the magnitude of a generated voltage per phase

• |V| is the magnitude of rated terminal voltage per phase
In this case, the terminal voltage is the same for both full load and no load
conditions. At lower leading power factors, the voltage rises with the increase
of load, and the regulation is negative.

EFFICIENCY:-

Generator efficiency is “the ratio between the power available at the

generator output and the energy supplied at the generator input”.

The power available at output of a generator is the net electrical power

after all losses such as core, copper and mechanical losses. The input to a
generator is a mechanical input. This mechanical input is acquired by
turbine blades, which are driven by various types of fuels or non –
conventional sources.

For example, in the thermal power plants coal is used to burn and
produce steam energy. This steam energy rotates the turbine blades.
This turbine movement is termed as mechanical input to the generator.
And the mechanical input given to the generator varies with respect to
time. So, it is difficult to define generator efficiency for this type of
energy conversion device. However, the efficiency is defined for a
particular time. At a particular time, the ratio of output power to the
mechanical input of the generator is the efficiency.

To calculate the efficiency, the mechanical input must be converted into

the electrical power by adequate relation.

In general, the expression for the efficiency is,

Here = Output Power

= Input Power