GI5501

SPATIAL DATA ADJUSTMENT

UNIT I MEASUREMENT AND ERROR
Unit I MEASUREMENT AND ERROR
Concepts of measurement and Error
Types of errors
Elementary concepts in probability
Reliability of measurement
Significant figures
Error Propagation
Linearization
Multivariate distribution
Error ellipse
Weights of an observation
Stochastic model and Functional model.
Computational Adjustment
Adjustment is a process of making measured values of a
quantity more accurate before they are used in the
computations for the determination of points position
that are associated with the measurements.
Measure to find the size, length, angles or amount of
something (unknown quantity), using standard units. Observe Observation

Observe is to see and notice something

Observation is the process of watching something or
someone carefully for a period of time.
Compute is to calculate a result, answer, sum etc.
Computation is the process of calculating or the result of
calculating. The term used to refer the indicate
complexity. Compute
Computation
Computational Adjustment
Adjust
To change or move something slightly to improve it or make it
more suitable for a particular purpose.
To change (something) to make it more correct; so that it fits,
corresponds to desired conditions.

Adjustment is a small change made to a machine, system, or

Calculation.

Adjustment is a process of distributing errors

(random) in measurements or observations so
that they conform to certain geometrical
conditions (such as misclosure) .
Concepts of Measurement and Error
Measurements are defined as
- observations made to determine unknown quantities.
- The process of estimating the magnitude of some attribute of an
object relative to a standard unit.
- The application of a device or apparatus for the purpose of
determining and unknown quantity

It may be classified as
• Direct Measurement
• Indirect Measurement
Concepts of Measurement and Error
Direct measurements are made by applying an instrument directly to the
unknown quantity and observing its value, usually by reading it directly
from graduated scales on the device.
Determining the distance between two points by making a direct
measurement using a graduated tape.
Measuring an angle by making a direct observation from the graduated
circle of a theodolite or total station instrument, are examples of direct
measurements.
Concepts of Measurement and Error
Indirect measurements are obtained when it is not possible or practical
to make direct measurements. In such cases the quantity desired is
determined from its mathematical relationship to direct measurements.

Surveyors may, measure angles and lengths of lines between points

directly and use these measurements to compute station coordinates.
From these coordinate values, other distances and angles that were not
measured directly maybe derived indirectly by computation.
Concepts of Measurement and Error
• One measurement is not a measurement
• Good practice in surveying leads to perform more measurements than
necessary. Those extra measurements help to provide effective control
on the results.
• Distance measurements back and forward (traverse network)
• Measuring the 3 angles of a triangle ( the sum must be 180 degrees)
• Levelling loops (the sum must be zero)
• Left and right side telescope measurements (to check the effect of small
misalignments of mechanical components of a Total Station into the
measurements)
• Those “extra” measurements aim to :
• Detect outliers in the observations (gross errors)
• Check other measurements.
• Provide consolidated results (best estimate)
• Judge of QUALITY is Reliability
Concepts of Measurement and Error
MEASUREMENT ERROR SOURCES
(1) No measurement is exact,
(2) Every measurement contains errors,
(3) The true value of a measurement is never known
(4) The exact sizes of the errors present are always unknown.

Introduction to errors
A typical survey measurements may involve such operations like
centering, pointing, setting and reading. Due to some human limitations,
imperfection in instruments, environmental changes or carelessness ;
certain amount of errors are produced.
The error in measured quantities should be eliminated before they
used in computing other quantities.
Types of Errors

There are three types of errors

that are classified based on the
source they arise from.

1. Gross Errors
2. Random Errors
3. Systematic Errors
RANDOM ERRORS
• Random errors in experimental measurements are
caused by unknown and unpredictable changes in the
experiment.
• These changes may occur in the measuring instruments
or in the environmental conditions.
Examples of random errors are
(a) imperfect centering over a point during distance
measurement with an EDM instrument,
(b) bubble not centered at the instant a level rod is read,
(c) small errors in reading graduated scales. It is impossible
to avoid random errors in measurements entirely.
Although they are often called accidental errors, their
occurrence should not be considered an accident.
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
1. Environmental Errors - This type of error arises in
the measurement due to the effect of the external
conditions on the measurement. The external
condition includes temperature, pressure, and
humidity and can also include an external magnetic
field.
2. Observational Errors - These are the errors that
arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper
setting of the apparatus, or an individual’s
carelessness in taking observations. The
measurement errors also include wrong readings due
to Parallax errors.
3. Instrumental Errors - These errors arise due to
faulty construction and calibration of the measuring
instruments.
 Gross errors can be avoided
GROSS ERRORS by using two suitable
measures:
• Gross errors, or "outliers", are errors other 1. Proper care should be
than random errors or systematic errors. taken in reading, recording
They are often large and, by definition, the data. Also, the
unpredictable. They are typically caused by calculation of error should
be done accurately.
sudden changes in the prevailing physical
2. By increasing the number
circumstances, by system faults or by
of experimenters, we can
operator errors.
reduce the gross errors. If
• This category basically takes into account
each experimenter takes
human oversight and other mistakes while different readings at
reading, recording, and readings. different points, then by
• The most common human error in taking the average of more
measurement falls under this category of readings, we can reduce
measurement errors. the gross errors
Quiz Time 5

Random Errors? 4

Systematic Errors? 3

Gross Errors?
2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Systematic Gross Error

Types of Errors

There are three types of errors

that are classified based on the
source they arise from.

1. Gross Errors
2. Random Errors
3. Systematic Errors
Concepts of Measurement and Error
Types of Error
Types of Error
Error and Correction

The true value is never known

Most probable value (𝒙)
The most probable value for a measured quantity which, based on the
observations, has the highest probability of occurrence.
It is derived from a sample set of data rather than the population and is
simply the mean if the repeated measurements have the same precision.
Residual Error (ν)
The difference between any individual measured quantity and the most
probable value for that quantity. Residuals are the values that are used in
adjustment computations since most probable values can be determined.
The term error is frequently used when residual is meant, and although
they are very similar and behave in the same manner, there is this
theoretical distinction. The mathematical expression for a residual is
νi = 𝒙 -xi
where vi is the residual in the ith observation, xi , and is the most 𝒙 probable
Residual Error (ν)

Residual = Observed value – Predicted value

 y = 29.63 + 0.7553x
Predicted Residue
Properties of Residuals How Are Residuals Used
in Practice?

1. Each observation in a dataset has a

corresponding residual. So, if a dataset 1. Assess model fit.
has 100 total observations then the 2. Check the
model will produce 100 predicted assumption of
values, which results in 100 total normality
residuals. 3. Check the
2. The sum of all residuals adds up to assumption of
zero.
3. The mean value of the residuals is homoscedasticity
zero.
Elementary concepts in Probability
NUMERICAL METHODS OF DESCRIBING DATA
Numerical descriptors are values computed from a data set that are used to
interpret its precision or quality. Numerical descriptors fall into three categories:
(1) measures of central tendency
(2) measures of data variation
(3) measures of relative standing
These categories are all called statistics. Simply described, a statistic is a
numerical descriptor computed from sample data.
Elementary concepts in Probability
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Measures of central tendency are computed statistical quantities that give an
indication of the value within a data set that tends to exist at the center. The
arithmetic mean, the median, and the mode are three such measures. They are
described as follows:
ARITHMETIC MEAN
For a set of n observations, y1, y2,..., yn, this is the average of the observations. Its
value, 𝑦 is computed from the equation. The symbol 𝑦 is used to represent a sample’s
arithmetic mean and the symbol μ is used to represent the population mean.
Elementary concepts in Probability
MEDIAN
As mentioned previously, this is the midpoint of a sample set when arranged in
ascending or descending order. One-half of the data are above the median and one-
half are below it. When there are an odd number of quantities, only one such value
satisfies this condition. For a data set with an even number of quantities, the average
of the two observations that straddle the midpoint is used to represent the median.
Elementary concepts in Probability
MODE
Within a sample of data, the mode is the most frequently occurring value.
It is seldom used in surveying because of the relatively small number of
values observed in a typical set of observations. In small sample sets,
several different values may occur with the same frequency, and hence
the mode can be meaningless as a measure of central tendency.
Elementary concepts in Probability
Elementary concepts in Probability
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA
An ordered numerical tabulation of data allows for some data distribution analysis, it
can be improved with a frequency histogram, usually called simply a histogram.
Histograms are bar graphs that show the frequency distributions in data.
To create a histogram, the data are divided into classes. These are subregions of data
that usually have a uniform range in values, or class width.
The histogram class width (range of data represented by each histogram bar) is
determined by dividing the total range by the selected number of classes.
 Elementary concepts in Probability

Figure 2.2(a) depicts a histogram that is symmetric about its central value with a single peak
in the middle. Figure 2.2(b) is also symmetric about the center but has a steeper slope than
Figure 2.2(a), with a higher peak for its central value. Assuming the ordinate and abscissa
scales to be equal, the data used to plot Figure 2.2(b) are more precise than those used for
Figure 2.2(a). Symmetric histogram shapes are common in surveying practice as well as in
many other fields. In fact, they are so common that the shapes are said to be examples of a
normal distribution. Figure 2.2(c) has two peaks and is said to be a bimodal histogram. In
the histogram of Figure 2.2(d), there is a single peak with a long tail to the left. This results
from a skewed data set, and in particular, these data are said to be skewed to the right. The
data of histogram Figure 2.2(e) are skewed to the left.
Frequency= Freq. Density x Class Width

0. 0.
6 7
x x
2 2
0.3 x 40 0 0
Quiz Time
What kind of sample distribution should be followed for the desert area
application?
Normal Distribution due to Homogeneity

What kind of sample collection strategy should be adopted for the LU/LC
mapping of agricultural area?
Order of Data
Collection
Industries
Built-up area
Forest area Left Skewed
Water bodies
Crop land
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 Elementary concepts in Probability
Population - A population consists of all possible measurements that can
be made on a particular item or procedure. Often, a population has an
infinite number of data elements.
Sample - A sample is a subset of data selected from the population.
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MEASURES OF RELATIVE STANDING
The three basic measures of relative standing are the z-score (also called the standard
score), the percentiles (and their percentile rank) and quartiles
A Z-score is a numerical measurement that describes a value's relationship to the
mean of a group of values. Z-score is measured in terms of standard deviations from
the mean. If a Z-score is 0, it indicates that the data point's score is identical to the
mean score.
Elementary concepts in Probability
MEASURES OF RELATIVE STANDING
Elementary concepts in Probability
MEASURES OF RELATIVE STANDING
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DEGREES OF FREEDOM / REDUNDANT OBSERVATIONS
The number of observations that are in excess of the number necessary to
solve for the unknowns. In other words, the number of degrees of freedom
equals the number of redundant observations. As an example, if a distance
between two points is measured three times, one observation would determine
the unknown distance and the other two would be redundant. These redundant
observations reveal the discrepancies and inconsistencies in observed values.
This, in turn, makes possible the practice of adjustment computations for
obtaining the most probable values based on the measured quantities.
Redundant observations are observations that exceed the minimum
number needed to determine an unknown.
Redundant observations allow the detection of random error and
adjustment be made to get a final or most probable value (MPV) for the
unknown.
 Elementary concepts in Probability
DEGREES OF FREEDOM / REDUNDANT OBSERVATIONS
A least squares adjustment is said to contain redundancy if the total
number of measurements exceeds the minimum number required to compute
the unknown parameters (i.e. when the degrees of freedom is greater than zero).
When repeated measurements are taken to estimate an unknown parameter, the
additional measurements are said to be redundant.
 Elementary concepts in Probability
DEGREES OF FREEDOM / REDUNDANT OBSERVATIONS
The following base lines are observed with GNSS for network adjustment. Find the
redundant observation for the survey network.
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data. Residuals are used rather than errors because they can be
calculated from most probable values, whereas errors cannot be
determined. For a sample data set, 68.3% of the observations will
theoretically lie between the most probable value plus and minus the
Elementary concepts in Probability
Elementary concepts in Probability
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From multiple measurements to an unique result (best linear unbiased estimator)
Serie 1 Serie 2
Serie 1 Serie 2
1 1.456 1.456
1 1.456 1.456
2 1.567 1.457
2 1.567 1.457 3 1.345 1.453
3 1.345 1.453 4 1.678 1.453
4 1.678 1.453 5 1.453 1.467
5 1.453 1.467 6 1.456 1.459

6 1.456 1.459 7 1.467 1.453

7 1.467 1.453 8 1.678 1.452

9 1.567 1.459
8 1.678 1.452
MEAN 1.519 1.457
9 1.567 1.459
STDEV 0.112 0.005
MEDIAN 1.467 1.456
What series has the more “precise” measurement ?
MIN 1.345 1.452
How will you consider a new 10th measurement ? MAX 1.678 1.467
What will be your criteria to accept or deny ? D Min-Max 0.333 0.015
Elementary concepts in Probability
Using the data from Table 2.2, determine the sample set’s mean, median, and mode
and the standard deviation. Also plot its histogram. (Recall that the data of Table 2.2
result from the seconds’ portion of 50 theodolite directions.)
A measurement is normally distributed with mean 110.156 m and standard deviation
0.022m. (a) Evaluate the 50% uncertainty, 90% uncertainty, 95% uncertainty and 97%
uncertainty of the measurement. (b) Evaluate the probability that the measurement lies
between 110.115m and 110.70 m?
Elementary concepts in Probability
PROBLEMS
1. The optical micrometer of a precise differential level is set and read 10 times as
8.801, 8.803, 8.798, 8.801, 8.799, 8.802, 8.802, 8.804, 8.800, and 8.802. What
value would you assign to the operator’s ability to set the micrometer on this
instrument?
2. An EDM instrument and reflector are set at the ends of a baseline that is 400.781
m long. Its length is measured 24 times, with the following results:
400.787 400.796 400.792 400.787 400.787 400.786 400.792 400.794 400.790
400.788 400.797 400.794 400.789 400.785 400.791 400.791 400.793 400.791
400.792 400.787 400.788 400.790 400.798 400.789
(a) What are the mean, median, and standard deviation of the data?
(b) Construct a histogram of the data with five intervals and describe its
properties. On the histogram, lay off the sample standard deviation from
both sides of the mean.
(c) How many observations are between 𝑦 ± S, and what percentage of
observations does this represent?
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ANALYSIS OF DIRECT REPEATED OBSERVATIONS

 Numerical/ Statistical method (mean, median, mode, standard

deviation)
 Graphical representation (scatterplot, frequency histogram)
Elementary concepts in Probability
I. Probable error(Es ):

II. Probable error of the mean (Em)

III. Probable error of a sum =

IV. Mean square error (m.s.e)

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Reliability of measurement
Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures something. If
the same result can be consistently achieved by using the same methods
under the same circumstances, the measurement is considered reliable.
Several terms used to express the Reliability of measurements. Three
common terms are
• Precision
• Accuracy
• Uncertainty
 Reliability of measurement
Accuracy is the measure of the absolute nearness of a measured quantity
to its true value. Since the true value of a quantity can never be
determined, accuracy is always an unknown. Accuracy includes not only
the effects of random errors but also any bias due to uncorrected
systematic errors. If there is no bias, the standard deviation can also used
as a measure of accuracy.
 Reliability of measurement
Precision is the degree of consistency between observations based on the
sizes of the discrepancies in a data set. The degree of precision attainable
is dependent on the stability of the environment during the time of
measurement, the quality of the equipment used to make the
observations, and the observer’s skill with the equipment and
observational procedures. Precision is indicated by the dispersion or
spread of the probability distribution. A common measure of precision is
the standard deviation (σ). The higher the precision, the lower is the value
of standard deviation (σ) and vice versa,
Reliability of measurement
Reliability of measurement
Uncertainty is the range with in which it is expected the error of a
measurement with fall. A specified level of probability is generally
associated with an uncertainty. The 90% uncertainty is the range of
values with in it is 90% probable error (ie. The probability is 0.90) of the
measurement will fall. If the uncertainty of a measurement is known, it
should accompany the measured values.
Reliability of measurement
Significant figures
Significant figures are used to establish the number which is presented in the form
of digits. These digits carry a meaningful representation of numbers. The term
significant digits are also used often instead of figures. We can identify the number of
significant digits by counting all the values starting from the 1st non-zero digit
located on the left. For example, 12.45 has four significant digits.

Definition
The significant figures of a given number are those significant or important digits,
which convey the meaning according to its accuracy. For example, 6.658 has four
significant digits. These substantial figures provide precision to the numbers. They are
also termed as significant digits.
Significant figures
Rules for Significant Figures
• All non-zero digits are significant. 198745 contains six significant digits.
• All zeros that occur between any two non zero digits are significant. For example,
108.0097 contains seven significant digits.
• All zeros that are on the right of a decimal point and also to the left of a non-zero
digit is never significant. For example, 0.00798 contained three significant digits.
• All zeros that are on the right of a decimal point are significant, only if, a non-zero
digit does not follow them. For example, 20.00 contains four significant digits.
• All the zeros that are on the right of the last non-zero digit, after the decimal point,
are significant. For example, 0.0079800 contains five significant digits.
• All the zeros that are on the right of the last non-zero digit are significant if they
come from a measurement. For example, 1090 m contains four significant digits.
Significant figures
Significant figures
Significant figures
Rounding Significant Figures
Significant figures
Significant figures
Error Propagation
The unknown values are often
determined indirectly by making direct
measurements of other quantities which are
functionally related to the desired unknowns.
Since all quantities that are measured
directly contain errors, any values computed
from them will also contain errors. This
intrusion, or propagation, of errors that
occurs in quantities computed from direct
measurements is called error propagation.
Evaluation of the errors in the
computed quantities as function of errors in
the measurement is called error propagation.
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
If errors are given in standard deviation
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
Error Propagation
Multivariate distribution
Multivariate distributions show comparisons between two or more
measurements and the relationships among them. For each
univariate distribution with one random variable, there is a more
general multivariate distribution. For example, the normal
distribution is univariate and its more general counterpart is the
multivariate normal distribution. While the multivariate normal model
is the most commonly used model for analyzing multivariate data,
there are many more: the multivariate lognormal distribution, the
multivariate binomial distribution, and so on.
Multivariate distribution
A bivariate distribution is the simplest multivariate distribution,
comprised of one pair of random variables. However, theoretically at
least, you could have an infinite number of pairs; all results from a
bivariate distribution for two pairs can be generalized to n random
variables.
Multivariate distribution
Each random variable in a multivariate distribution has its own mean and variance: there isn’t a “one
size fits all” probability density function, like you would find with a univariate distribution. For discrete
random variables, multivariate distribution and described by joint probabilities. For continuous random
variables, the relevant univariate distribution is extended. However, once you dive into the depths of
multivariate distributions analysis gets a little more complicated. As multivariate analysis involves
vector observations, an understanding of the variance-covariance matrix is “vital” to understanding
multivariate normal distributions
Weights of an Observations
The weight of an observation is a measure of its relative worth compared to
other measurements. Weights are used to control the sizes of corrections applied to
measurements in an adjustment. The more precise an observation, the higher its
weight; in other words, the smaller the variance, the higher the weight. From this
analysis it can be stated intuitively that weights are inversely proportional to
variances. Thus, it also follows that correction sizes should be inversely proportional
to weights.
𝞼20
Weight of an Observation Wi = 2
𝞼𝑖

Where 𝞼20 is reference variance

𝞼2i is variance of an observation

105
Weights of an Observations

106
Weights of an Observations

107
Stochastic model and Functional model.
A least squares adjustment can be divided into two parts, the stochastic and
functional models.
Stochastic model
The stochastic model is the weighting model that controls the size of the
corrections applied to the observations. For independent observations, the
weight of the observation is inversely proportional to the variance of the
observation. The fundamental principle of a least squares adjustment for
observations having equal or unit weights. The more general case of least
squares adjustment assumes that the observations have varying degrees of
precision and thus varying weights. The determination of variances, and
subsequently the weights of the observations, is known as the stochastic
model in a least squares adjustment.
Stochastic Having a random probability distribution or pattern that may
be analysed statistically but may not be predicted precisely.
Stochastic model and Functional model.
Stochastic model
A Stochastic Model has the capacity to handle uncertainties in the
inputs applied. Stochastic models possess some inherent randomness -
the same set of parameter values and initial conditions will lead to an
ensemble of different outputs.
The determination of variances, and subsequently the weights of
the observations, is known as the stochastic model in a least squares
adjustment. It is crucial to the adjustment to select a proper stochastic
(weighting) model, the weight of an observation controls the amount of
correction it receives during the adjustment. However, development of
the stochastic model is important not only to weighted adjustments.
When doing an unweighted adjustment, all observations are assumed to
be of equal weight, and thus the stochastic model is created implicitly.
Stochastic model and Functional model.
Functional model
A function model or functional model in systems engineering and software
engineering is a structured representation of the functions (activities, actions, processes,
operations) within the modeled system or subject area
A functional model in adjustment computations is an equation or set of
equations/functions that represents or defines an adjustment condition. If the functional
model represents the physical situation adequately, the observational errors can be
expected to conform to the normal distribution curve.
There are two basic forms for functional models: the conditional and parametric
adjustments.
Stochastic model and Functional model.
Functional model
In a conditional adjustment, geometric conditions are enforced on the observations and
their residuals. Examples of conditional adjustment are:
(1) the sum of the angles in a closed polygon is (n - 2)180º,where n is the number of
sides in the polygon.
(2) the latitudes and departures of a polygon traverse sum to zero; (3) the sum of the
angles in the horizon equal 360º.
When performing a parametric adjustment, observations are expressed in terms of
unknown parameters that were never observed directly. For example, the well-known coordinate
equations are used to model the angles, directions, and distances observed in a horizontal
plane survey. The adjustment yields the most probable values for the coordinates (parameters),
which in turn provide the most probable values for the adjusted observations.
Stochastic model and Functional model.
The mathematical model for an adjustment is the combination of the stochastic model and
functional model.

The functional model describes the mathematical relationship between the GPS observations
and the unknown parameters, while the stochastic model describes the statistics of the GPS
observations.
Data differencing techniques are extensively used for constructing the functional model as they
can eliminate many of the troublesome GPS biases, such as the atmospheric bias, the receiver clock
bias, the satellite clock bias, and so on.

The stochastic and functional models must both be correct if the adjustment is to yield the most
probable values for the unknown parameters. That is, it is just as important to use a correct stochastic
model as it is to use a correct functional model. Improper weighting of observations will result in the
unknown parameters being determined incorrectly
Stochastic model and Functional model.
Stochastic model and Functional model.