Notes upon the subject of Multivarible Calculus

𝕽udravisek

6 January 2026
 Contents

Day 1 6 January 2026 Page 1

1.1 Functions of Two Variables 1
1.2 Limits of Functions of Two Variables 2
Neighbourhoods — 2

Day 2 7 January 2026 Page 6

2.1 Limits: Path Dependence and Non-Existence 6
2.2 Continuity of Functions of Two Variables 8

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Day 1
1.1 Functions of Two Variables
Let 𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦), where (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐷 𝑓 ⊂ ℝ2 . Such a function is called a function of two variables.

𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑥
𝑥
𝑦
(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑦

Example 1.1.1
Consider the function √
𝑧= 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦).
The domain of 𝑓 is
𝐷 𝑓 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ⩽ 1}.

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 Definition 1.1.1: Graph of a Function

The graph of a function 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) is the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∈ ℝ3 such that

(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐷 𝑓 and 𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦).

Note:-
The graph of 𝑓 forms a surface in ℝ3 whose projection onto the 𝑥𝑦-plane is exactly the domain
𝐷𝑓 .

Definition 1.1.2: Trace of a Surface

For a constant 𝑐, the plane 𝑧 = 𝑐 intersects the surface 𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) along the curve given
by
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐.
This intersection is called the trace of the surface in the plane 𝑧 = 𝑐.

Definition 1.1.3: Level Curve

The set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) in the 𝑥𝑦-plane satisfying 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐 is called the level curve
of 𝑓 at level 𝑐.

1.2 Limits of Functions of Two Variables

1.2.1 Neighbourhoods
In ℝ
For 𝑐 ∈ ℝ and 𝛿 > 0, the 𝛿-neighbourhood of 𝑐 is defined as

𝑉𝛿 (𝑐) = (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐 + 𝛿).
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In ℝ2
Let 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℝ2 .

• The open disc of radius 𝑟 centred at 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) is

√
{(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝑟}.

(𝑎, 𝑏)

• The closed disc of radius 𝑟 centred at 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) is

√
{(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 ≤ 𝑟}.

(𝑎, 𝑏)

• A rectangular neighbourhood is given by

{(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : | 𝑥 − 𝑎| < ℎ, | 𝑦 − 𝑏| < 𝑘}.

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 𝑦

𝑏+𝑘
(𝑎, 𝑏)

𝑏−𝑘

𝑥
𝑎−ℎ 𝑎+ℎ

Definition 1.2.1: Limit of a Function of Two Variables

Let 𝑓 : ℝ2 → ℝ and let (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) ∈ ℝ2 . We say that

lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐿
(𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑥 0 ,𝑦0 )

if for every 𝜀 > 0, there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that

| 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| < 𝜀

whenever √
0< (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 < 𝛿.

Example 1.2.1
Use the definition of limit to show that

lim (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3/2 = 0.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0)

Solution: Let 𝜀 > 0 be given. Consider

| 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 0| = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3/2 .
Choose
𝛿 = 𝜀1/3 .
Then, whenever √
0< 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 𝛿,
we have
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3/2 < 𝜀.
Hence,
lim (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3/2 = 0.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0)

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 Example 1.2.2
Show that (1)
lim 𝑦 sin = 0.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥

Solution: We have √
| 𝑦 sin(1/𝑥)| ≤ | 𝑦| ≤ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2.
√
If 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 𝜀, then
| 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 0| < 𝜀.
Choosing 𝛿 = 𝜀 completes the proof.
Note:-
For a function of two variables, the notation

(𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )

means that the point (𝑥, 𝑦) is allowed to approach (𝑥 0 , 𝑦0 ) along any path that lies in the
domain 𝐷 𝑓 and passes through (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
If
lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)
(𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )

is not the same for all paths within 𝐷 𝑓 , then the limit does not exist.

Example 1.2.3
Show that
2𝑥𝑦
lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) does not exist, where 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = .
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥2+ 𝑦2

Solution: First, we compute the limit along the path 𝑦 = 0 (the 𝑥-axis).

2𝑥(0)
lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = lim = 0.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥→0 𝑥 2 + 02

Next, we compute the limit along the path 𝑦 = 𝑥.

2𝑥(𝑥) 2𝑥 2
lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = lim = lim = 1.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥→0 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑥→0 2𝑥 2

Since the limits along different paths are not equal, the limit does not exist.

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Day 2
2.1 Limits: Path Dependence and Non-Existence

Example 2.1.1
Show that the limit
lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0)

does not exist for the following functions:

(i)
𝑥2 𝑦
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 2 .
𝑥 + 𝑦2

(ii)
𝑥4 𝑦2
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 2 .
(𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )3

(iii)
𝑥 − 𝑦2
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 2 .
𝑥 + 𝑦2

(iv)
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 4 .
𝑥 + 𝑦4

𝑥2 𝑦
Solution: (i) For 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = , consider the paths
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥2.
Along 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥,
𝑥 2 (𝑚𝑥) 𝑚𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = → 0.
𝑥2 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 1 + 𝑚2
Along 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ,
𝑥4 𝑥2 1
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = → .
𝑥 +𝑥
2 4 1+𝑥 2 2
Hence, the limit does not exist.
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 𝑥4 𝑦2
(ii) For 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 2 , take the paths
(𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )3
√
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 and 𝑦= 𝑥.

Along 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥,
𝑥 4 (𝑚 2 𝑥 2 ) 𝑚2
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = .
(𝑥 2 + 𝑚 2 𝑥 2 )3 (1 + 𝑚 2 )3
√
Along 𝑦 = 𝑥,
𝑥5
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = → 0.
(𝑥 2 + 𝑥)3
Thus, the limit depends on the path.
𝑥 − 𝑦2
(iii) For 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = , consider
𝑥2 + 𝑦2

𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 = 0.

Along 𝑦 = 0,
𝑥 1
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = ,
𝑥 2 𝑥
which diverges. Along 𝑥 = 0,
−𝑦 2
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 2 = −1.
𝑦
Therefore, the limit does not exist.

(iv) Along the path 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥,

𝑥 2 (𝑚 2 𝑥 2 ) 𝑚2
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = .
𝑥4 + 𝑚4 𝑥4 1 + 𝑚4
Choosing 𝑚 = 1 gives 12 , while 𝑚 = 2 gives 174
. Thus, the limit depends on the path and
does not exist.

Example 2.1.2
Use polar coordinates to evaluate the following limits.

(i)
tan(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
lim .
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

(ii)
( ) 1
lim 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 .
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0)

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Solution:
(i) Let 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃. Then

tan(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) tan(𝑟 2 )
= .
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑟2
Hence,
tan(𝑟 2 )
lim = 1.
𝑟→0 𝑟2
(ii) Using polar coordinates,
( ) 1 ( ) 1
1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 = 1 + 𝑟2 𝑟2 .
Thus,
( ) 1/𝑟 2
lim 1 + 𝑟 2 = 𝑒.
𝑟→0

2.2 Continuity of Functions of Two Variables

Definition 2.2.1: Continuity

A function 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be continuous at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) if

(i) 𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is defined,

(ii) lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) exists,

(𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑥 0 ,𝑦0 )

(iii) lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).

(𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑥 0 ,𝑦0 )

Definition 2.2.2: Epsilon–Delta Definition

The function 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) is continuous at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) if for every 𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝛿 > 0 such
that √
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 < 𝛿 ⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )| < 𝜀.
Geometrically, 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) is continuous if its surface has no holes or gaps.

Note:-
Algebra of continuous functions (of one variable) is carried forward in a similar manner to
continuous functions of two variables.

Example 2.2.1
Test the continuity of the following functions.

(i)
𝑥−𝑦
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = .
𝑥2 + 𝑦2

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 (ii)
1
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = .
𝑦 − 𝑥2

Solution:

(i) The function is not continuous at (0, 0) since 𝑓 (0, 0) is not defined.

(ii) The function is not continuous at points satisfying 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .

Example 2.2.2
Show that the function (1)



 𝑦 sin , 𝑥 ≠ 0,
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥

 0, 𝑥 = 0,

is continuous at (0, 0).

Solution: We have
| 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)| ≤ | 𝑦|.
Since
lim | 𝑦| = 0,
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0)

it follows that
lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 = 𝑓 (0, 0).
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0)

Hence, 𝑓 is continuous at (0, 0).

Example 2.2.3
Let
sin(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = , (𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ (0, 0).
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
For what value of 𝑓 (0, 0) is 𝑓 continuous?

Solution: Using polar coordinates,

sin(𝑟 2 )
lim 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = lim = 1.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑟→0 𝑟2

Thus, defining 𝑓 (0, 0) = 1 makes the function continuous at (0, 0).