History – Nationalism in India
1. First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation
- First World War created huge economic and political problems for Indians. Taxes were raised,
loans taken, prices doubled between 1913–18. Food shortages and influenza epidemic killed
millions.
- Rowlatt Act (1919): allowed detention without trial, created mass anger.
- Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: 13 April 1919, General Dyer opened fire, hundreds killed. Shocked
the nation.
- Khilafat Movement: Ali brothers, Maulana Azad and Gandhi united Hindus and Muslims to protest
against British and protect Ottoman Khalifa.
- Non-Cooperation (1920): Gandhi urged boycott of foreign cloth, schools, law courts, titles.
Promote swadeshi, khadi, Hindu-Muslim unity.
2. Differing Strands of Movement
- Towns: Students left schools, lawyers gave up practice, boycott of cloth (imports halved), rise of
khadi.
- Countryside: Awadh peasants (Baba Ramchandra) demanded reduction of rent, no begar. Andhra
tribals under Alluri Sitaram Raju revolted, inspired by Gandhi but used guerrilla tactics. Plantation
workers in Assam wanted freedom of movement, linked it with swaraj.
3. Towards Civil Disobedience
- Chauri Chaura incident (1922) → Gandhi withdrew Non-Cooperation.
- Simon Commission (1928) → opposed everywhere (no Indian member). "Go back Simon".
- Lahore Congress (1929): Purna Swaraj declared by Nehru. Decided to celebrate 26th Jan as
Independence Day.
- Civil Disobedience (1930): Gandhi launched Dandi March, broke salt law.
4. Salt March and Civil Disobedience
- Salt tax was symbol of oppression. Gandhi marched 240 miles to Dandi, broke salt law.
- Mass participation, refusal to pay taxes, boycott of cloth, resignations. Brutal repression by govt,
lathi charges, thousands jailed.
- Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): Gandhi attended Round Table Conference, but failed. Movement
resumed.
5. Participation of Social Groups
- Rich peasants (Patidars, Jats) supported initially, later withdrew as govt did not reduce revenue.
- Poor peasants wanted rent reduction, redistribution. Congress hesitant, so limited support.
- Business class supported swadeshi, but withdrew when Congress opposed their interests.
- Workers: railway, textile strikes. Limited participation due to Congress focus on
landlords/industrialists.
- Women: picketing, boycotts, protests. However, no equal political rights given by Congress.
6. Collective Belonging
- Nationalism strengthened by symbols: Bharat Mata image, folklore, songs, tricolour flag with
charkha.
- Swadeshi movement promoted pride in Indian culture.
- Communal divisions sometimes weakened national unity.
Geography – Agriculture
Importance of Agriculture
- Provides livelihood to 58% Indians, raw materials for industries, food security.
- Contributes to GDP and exports. Backbone of Indian economy.
Types of Farming
1. Primitive subsistence: traditional tools, shifting cultivation (Jhumming in NE India).
2. Intensive subsistence: small land, high labour, high yield. Common in UP, Bihar.
3. Commercial farming: HYV seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, cash crops. Plantation farming – Tea in
Assam, Coffee in Karnataka.
Major Crops
- Rice: Kharif, high rainfall/temp. Grown in WB, Assam, Punjab, TN.
- Wheat: Rabi, cool climate, winter rainfall. Grown in Punjab, Haryana, UP.
- Millets: Jowar (Maharashtra), Bajra (Rajasthan), Ragi (Karnataka). Hardy crops, nutritious.
- Pulses: Tur, Urad, Gram. India → largest producer.
- Cash crops: Sugarcane (UP, Maharashtra), Cotton (black soil of Gujarat, Maharashtra), Jute
(West Bengal), Tea (Assam, Darjeeling), Coffee (Karnataka).
- Oilseeds: Groundnut, mustard, soyabean, sunflower.
Technological & Institutional Reforms
- Green Revolution (HYV seeds, irrigation, fertilizers).
- MSP, FCI procurement, subsidies, crop insurance, KCC, cooperative societies.
Problems
- Dependence on monsoon, small holdings, low productivity, outdated tech, soil degradation.
- Unequal distribution of land.
Solutions
- Diversification, mechanisation, rainwater harvesting, watershed development, organic farming,
irrigation expansion.
Geography – Minerals and Energy Resources
Importance
- Minerals → foundation of industry, transport, energy, construction.
Types of Minerals
- Metallic: Ferrous (iron, manganese), Non-ferrous (copper, bauxite).
- Non-metallic: mica, limestone.
- Energy minerals: coal, petroleum, gas, uranium.
Major Minerals
- Iron ore: Odisha (Keonjhar), Chhattisgarh (Bailadila), Jharkhand (Singhbhum).
- Manganese: Odisha, Karnataka.
- Copper: Rajasthan, Jharkhand.
- Bauxite: Odisha → largest producer.
- Mica: Andhra, Rajasthan, Jharkhand.
- Limestone: important for cement.
Energy Resources
- Conventional: Coal (Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro), Petroleum (Mumbai High, Assam, Gujarat), Gas
(Krishna-Godavari, Assam).
- Non-Conventional: Solar, wind (TN, Gujarat), tidal (Kachchh), geothermal (HP, Ladakh), nuclear
(Jharkhand uranium, Kerala thorium), biogas.
Conservation
- Minerals are non-renewable. Need efficient mining, recycling, alternate energy, awareness.
Political Science – Federalism
Meaning
- Federalism: power-sharing between central and state governments.
Features
- Two levels of government.
- Division of powers → Union, State, Concurrent Lists.
- Constitution supreme, judiciary resolves disputes.
- Dual objectives → unity + diversity.
India’s Federalism
- Strong centre, but states have powers.
- Union List (defence, currency), State List (police, agriculture), Concurrent (education, forests).
- Reorganisation of states (1956) on linguistic basis.
- Coalition governments since 1990s increased role of states.
- Decentralisation: 73rd (Panchayati Raj), 74th (Municipalities).
Importance
- Maintains unity, accommodates diversity, strengthens democracy.
Political Science – Gender, Religion and Caste
Gender and Politics
- Women discriminated in education, jobs, wages, politics.
- Literacy gap: women 65%, men 82%.
- Women's movements demand equality, reservation. 33% seats in Panchayati Raj reserved.
Religion and Politics
- India is secular. Govt treats all religions equally.
- Religion should not be used politically. Communalism dangerous (riots, partition).
Caste and Politics
- Caste influences politics, voting.
- Reservation ensures SC, ST, OBC representation.
- Caste politics → both positive (voice to disadvantaged) and negative (vote bank).
Conclusion
- Democracy requires equality across gender, caste, religion.
Political Science – Political Parties
Definition
- Organisations with ideology, policies, contest elections, form govt.
Functions
- Contest elections, make laws, provide govt access, opposition checks ruling party.
Party System in India
- Multi-party system. National parties (INC, BJP). Regional parties (DMK, TMC, BJD, AAP).
- Coalition era since 1990s.
Challenges
- Dynasty politics, corruption, money & muscle, lack of internal democracy, populism.
Reforms
- Anti-defection law, state funding of elections, transparent funding, inner democracy, tech use.
Economics – Sectors of the Indian Economy
Sectors by Activity
- Primary (agriculture, mining).
- Secondary (industries, manufacturing).
- Tertiary (services: banking, IT, transport).
Importance
- Primary: raw material, food.
- Secondary: adds value, jobs.
- Tertiary: fastest growing, supports both.
Employment Issues
- Disguised unemployment in agriculture.
- Underemployment.
- Need jobs in secondary & tertiary sectors.
Organised vs Unorganised
- Organised: regular wages, security (govt jobs, companies).
- Unorganised: irregular, no security (farm labourers, daily workers).
Public vs Private
- Public: govt-owned (Railways, LIC).
- Private: individual-owned (Infosys, Tata).
Need for Growth
- Balanced development. Invest in infrastructure, skills, industries, services.