Unit of Analysis justification you need to support them

critically from the literature reviewed. You

 Is that part of the hypothesis which is used to also need to assure yourself and others that
the focus of the analysis
the path you have proposed will yield valid
Ex. Members of the house who belong to the same and reliable results.
party as the president are more likely to vote for Functions of a Research Design
legislation desired by the president than are
members who belong to a different party  There are two primary functions of research
design:
Unit of analysis: Members of the house
o Conceptualize an operational plan to
Concepts undertake the various procedures and
tasks required to complete your study
 According to Kumar (2011) a CONCEPT o Ensure that these procedures are
are mental images or perceptions that are adequate to obtain valid, objective
similar to variables but are not measurable and accurate answers to the research
 Since concepts cannot be measured, you questions. Kerlinger (1986; 280) calls
reduce them into variables and then measure this function to the control of
those. Variables can be further reduced into variance
indicators
Conceptualizing an Operational Plan
Assignment: meet with group and formulate a
hypothesis this Tuesday (Oct. 11, 2022)  Through a research design you decude for
yourself and communicate to others your
What is a Research Design? decisions regarding:
 Is a plan, structure, and strategy of o What study design are you proposing
investigation so conceived as to obtain to use
answers to research questions or problems. o How you are going to collect
The plan is the complete scheme or program information from your respondents
of the research. It includes an outline of o How will you secure their consent
what the investigator will do from writing o How will you collect the data and
the hypotheses and their operation why the method you picked will be
implication to the final analysis of data used
(Kerlinger 1989; 279) o How the information you are going to
 A research design is a procedural plan that is collect is to be analyzed
adopted by the researcher to answer o How you are going to communicate
questions validly, objectively, accurately, your findings
and economically. o How will interviews be conducted
 A research design is the arrangement of Ensuring that procedures are adequate to obtain
conditions for collection and analysis of valid, objective and accurate answers
data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with  It is important that you select a study design
economy in procedure (Selitiz, Deutsch and that helps you isolate, eliminate or quantify
Cook, 1962; 50) the effects of different sets of variables
 In addition, you will need to detail in your influencing the independent variable.
research design the rationale and Example:
justification for each decision that shapes
your answers to the ‘how’ of the research RQ: Does poverty affect the longevity of an
journey. In presenting your rationale and individual?
 Hypothesis: Individuals who suffer from extreme  Is a process of obtaining, recording,
cases of poverty tend to have shorter lifespans presenting and interpreting historical or
current information, based upon personal
10/18/2021 – TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
experiences and opinions of some members
Two main types of research design: of a study group or unit.
 These opinions or experiences could be based
 Quantitative
upon eye-witness evidence or information
 Qualitative passed on from other sources such as older
 Mixed methods people, ancestors, folklore, or stories as
Within these two main types of design are many according to Ritchie (2003; 19)
other sub-types of research designs  According to Burns (1997; 368), ‘these are
usually first person naaratives that the
Qualitative Designs researcher collects using extensive
 Case studies interviewing of a single individual’.
 Focus group interviews 3.) FGS/FGD
 Oral history
 Participant observation  A form of strategy in qualitative research in
 Holistic research which attitudes, opinions or perceptions
towards an issue, product, service, or
 CHA
program are explored through a free and open
 Community discussion forums
discussion between members of a group and
 Reflective journal log
the researcher.
 Action research
 Both focus groups and group interviews are
 Feminist research facilitated group discussions in which a
1.) Case Studies research raises issues or asks questions that
stimulate discussion among members of the
 Specific cases are selected group
 A case could be a group, individual, family,  Because of its low cost, it is a popular method
clan, organization, country. for finding information I almost every
 The ‘case’ you select becomes the basis of a professional area and an academic field
thorough, holistic, and in-depth exploration
of the aspect(s) that you want to find out 4.) Participant Observation (Ethnography)
about. It is an approach in which a particular  Is another strategy for gathering information
instance or a few carefully selected cases are about a social interaction or a phenomenon in
studied intensively (Gilbert, 2008; 36) qualitative studies. This is usually done by
 A case has to be representative of a bundle of developing a close interaction with members
other similar cases so that the conclusions are of a group or ‘living’ in the situation which is
inclusive being studied.
 Case studies can be multiple methods of  The researcher becomes involved in the
gathering data activities of the group, create a rapport with
2.) Oral History group members and then, having sought their
consent, silently observe the situation,
 This is an approach to study perceptions, interaction, site, or phenomenon.
experiences and accounts of an event or  The researcher makes detailed notes of what
gathering historical knowledge as viewed by he observe in a format that bets suits him as
individuals. It is a picture of something in well as the situation
someone else’s words
5.) Holistic Research o Questionnaire
o Focused group interviews
 The design is based upon the philosophy that o Observations
as a multiplicity of factors interacts in our
lives, we cannot understand a phenomenon Primary Considerations in Choosing a Data-
from just one or two perspectives. To Gathering Technique
understand a situation or phenomenon you
 The type of research design you are using
need to look at it in its totality – that is,
(qualitative or quantitative)
holistically from every perspective.
 The validity of the data-gathering technique
6.) Community Discussion  The reactivity of the data-collection method
 The population covered by a data-collection
 Designed to find opinions, attributes, and/or
method
ideas of a community with regard to
community issues. It is one of the very  Cost and finance
popular ways of seeking a community’s  The socio-economic and
participation in deciding about issues of demographic/characteristics of the target
concern to members of the community. population
 Such forums are also used for a variety of  Environmental conditions (pandemic, wars,
other reasons such as developing town etc.)
planning options and community health Categories of Data
programs for a community, seeking
participation of its members in resolving  Primary – principally gathered by the
issues relating to a traffic management, researcher
infrastructure development and determining o Observation
future directions for the area, informing o Interviews
communities of new initiatives o Questionnaire
 This is similar to FGs but in a much larger  Secondary – data used by the researcher who
scale had no hand in gathering
o Gov’t records
7.) Reflective Journal Log o Canned data
 This design entails keeping a reflective o Other types of records
journal log of your thoughts as a researcher Observation Technique
whenever you notice anything, talk to
someone, participate in an activity, or  Observation – is one way to collect primary
observe something that helps you understand data. Observation is a purposeful, systematic
or add whatever you are trying to find out and selective way of watching and listening
about. These reflective records then become to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes
the basis of your findings place.
o Observation has its roots in a method
10/18/2022; 10/21/2022 – DATA GATHERING of gathering data known as
TECHNIQUES ethnography
Major Data-Gathering Techniques o Objective of observation is to observe
behavior. If a researcher wants to
 In social research there are many sources of make sense of the behavior, then the
data. Some examples are: appropriate technique is observation
o Interviews  The observation can be done in two ways
o Documents o Direct/participant
o Government records o Indirect/non-participant
Participant and Non-participant Interview Schedule – a written list of
questions, open-ended or closed, prepared for use
 Participant Observation – the researcher by the interviewer in a person-to-person
participates in the activities of the group interaction.
being observed in the same manner as its
members.  Observations can also be overt or covert
o Overt – those being observed are
Ex. Acting homeless and going through the
aware that they’re being observed
associated day to day experience in order to
o Covert – those being observed aren’t
observe homeless people.
aware they’re being observed
 Non-participant Observation – the Note-Taking and Recording of Observation
researcher refrains from involving
themselves in the activities of the group but  Researchers also have ways of recording
remain a passive observer. what they have observed
1. Mental notes – no actual handwritten
Challenges and Problems with Participant
record is made. The researcher just
Observation
keeps this in mind and recalls them
 Participant observation is also plagued with later
limitations and challenges 2. Jotted notes – the researcher writes
1. That is subject of inquiry cannot be words, phrases that activate the
directly observed memory of the researcher
2. The researcher does not have control over 3. Field notes – field notes are full
the environment length observations of what the
3. This technique is prone to distortions as researcher observes in the field
the researcher might have developed ties Indirect Observation
and relationships with people being
observed  Utilizes the physical remnant or traces of a
4. The researcher also does not have behavior as data
complete control of the informants. They  Resembles detective work
may over-emphasize or under-emphasize
Examples:
The Hawthorne Effect – change in the behavior
of persons or groups attributed to their being 1. You can know the consumption patterns
observed. of people by using their trash or what they
discard as trace measure
Ex. A teacher’s change in behavior during 2. You can check the frequently visited
class upon being observed by a third party websites of a person by checking on his
search history
Structured or Unstructured Participant Observation
3. You can learn the peak hours in the use of
 Observations can also be done through internet by checking on the community
structured and unstructured means internet speed at particular times
o Structured – in this kind of
Ethical Issues in Observations
observation technique the researcher
systematically records and accounts  Do no harm to your subjects
for events directly related to the - Be sensitive to invasion of privacy
behavior being observed - Avoid stress during observation process
o Unstructured – in this research - Disclosure of information
technique the research records all - Do not let your interviewees sign
events (…) anything
 - Do not violate community norms Points to Remember when Conducting Interviews
To avoid problems later, it is imperative that  Do advance study when dealing with elite
the researcher secures an informed consent interviewees. Make sure to know information
on them to minimize what you will ask them.
Interview
 Maximize time with elite interviewees. The
 Commonly used method of collecting time that you have may be the only time
information from people. In many walks of you’ll have to interview with them.
life we collect information through different  Deliver what was promised. When promising
forms of interaction with others. confidentiality, give it
 ‘an inter- view involves an interviewer  Always have a recorder or a note pad ready
reading questions to respondents and when going interviews
recording their answers’ (Monette et al,
Questionnaire
1986)
 ‘an interview is a verbal interchange, often  A questionnaire is a written list of questions
face to face, though the telephone may be that respondents physically answer based on
used, in which an interviewer tries to elicit their interpretation of said questions.
information, beliefs, or opinions from  The only difference between an interview
another person’ (Burns, 1997) schedule and a questionnaire is that the
Types of Interviews former has the interviewer answer the
questions and records the respondent’s
 Structured – researcher asks a set of replies on an interview schedule.
predetermined set of questions with a
Ways of Administering a Questionnaire
specified interview schedule. It is completely
guided 1. It can be mailed:
 Unstructured – has complete freedom in  Most common approach to collecting
terms of content and structure information is to send the questionnaire
to prospective respondent by mail.
Advantages of an Interview
 Recommended to send a prepaid,
 Is more appropriate for complex situations self-addressed envelope with the
 It is useful for collecting in depth- questionnaire as this might
information increase the response rate, a
 Questions can be explained mailed questionnaire must be
 Interviewing has a wider application accompanied by a covering letter

Disadvantages of an Interview *One major drawback is the low response rate,

which can make the findings questionable at best.
 Time consuming and expensive
 Quality of data depends upon the quality of 2. Collective Administration
the interaction  One of the best ways of administering a
 Quality of data depends upon the quality of questionnaire is to obtain a captive
the interviewer audience such as students in a classroom,
people attending a function, participants
 Quality of data may vary when many
in a program, or people assembled in one
interviewers are used
place. Ensures a very high response rate,
 Prone to researcher bias
and quickest way of collecting data
 Purpose of the study can be explained
directly.
3. Administration in a public place express their opinions while discussing these
 Shopping center, health center, hospital, issues.
school, pub, etc., depending on the study  The researcher needs to ensure that whatever
population is expressed or discussed is recorded
 Purpose of the study is explained to accurately.
potential respondents as they approach
and their participation is requested
 Slightly more time consuming, but still
has all the advantages of administering a
questionnaire collectively
Advantages of a Questionnaire

 Less expensive
 Offers greater anonymity
Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
 Limited application – The study population
can only be the literate, eliminating the
illiterate, very young, very old, or
handicapped.
 Low response rate – Not everyone will
return their questionnaires
 Self-selecting bias – Not all who receive a
questionnaire return it, so those who do may
have differing attitudes, attributes, or
motivations from those who don’t.
 Opportunity to clarify issues is lacking
 A response to a question may be influenced
by a response to other questions
 Respondents might consult others on their
own response
 It is possible to consult others.
Focused Group Discussions
 Undertaken with a group and limited to a size
of 6 to 12 participants.
 You explore the perceptions, experience and
understandings of a group of people who
have same experience in common with
regard to a situation or event.
 Board discussions topics are developed
beforehand, either by a research or by the
group. These provide a broad frame for
discussions which follow. The specific
discussion points emerge as a part of the
discussion. Members of a focus group